BIPOLAR JUNCTION

TRANSISTORS
IN THIS CHAPER
i. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Structure
ii. Basic BJT Operation
iii. BJT Characteristics and Parameters
iv. The BJT as an Amplifier
v. The BJT as a Switch
vi. The Phototransistor
vii. Transistor Categories and Packaging
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Structure
• Physical representations of the two types of BJTs are shown in Figure 1
• The term bipolar refers to the use of both holes and electrons as current carriers in the transistor
structure
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Structure
• The pn junction joining B and E region: base-
emitter junction.
• The pn junction joining B and C region:
base-collector junction.
• The base region is lightly doped and very
thin compared to the heavily
doped emitter and the moderately doped
collector regions.
• Figure 2 shows the schematic symbols for
the npn and pnp bipolar junction transistors
BASIC BJT OPERATION
BIASING
• Figure 3: bias
arrangement for both
npn and pnp BJTs for
operation as an
amplifier.
• In both cases the base-
emitter (BE) junction is
forward-biased and the
base-collector (BC)
junction is reverse-
biased.
• This condition is called
forward-reverse bias.
 Operation
• Heavily doped n-type E region has a very
high density of conduction-band (free) e,
Figure 4, that easily diffuse through the
forward based BE junction into the lightly
doped and very thin p-type base region.
• The base has a low density of holes, which
are the majority carriers, as represented by
the white circles.
• A small percentage of the total number of
free electrons injected into the base region
recombine with holes and move as valence
electrons through the base region and into
the emitter region as hole current, indicated
by the red arrows.

https://youtu.be/6KFFouK6-eM
 Operation
• When e that have recombined with holes as valence
electrons leave the crystalline structure of the base,
they become free e in the metallic base lead and
produce the external base current.
• Most of the free e that have entered the base do not
recombine with holes because the base is very thin.
• As free e move toward the reverse-biased BC
junction, they are swept across into C region by the
attraction of the positive collector supply voltage.
• Free e move through C region, into the external
circuit, and then return into the E region along with
the base current, as indicated.
• The IE is slightly greater than the collector current
because of the small base current that splits off from
the total current injected into the base region from
the emitter.
 • The directions I in a npn transistor shown in Figure 5(a); pnp transistor in

Transistor Figure 5(b).

• Note: arrow on the Emitter inside the transistor symbols points in the

Currents direction of conventional current.

IE = IB + IC
• As mentioned before, IB << IE or IC.
 BJT
CHARACTERISTIC
S AND
PARAMETERS
Transistor connected to DC bias
voltages, Figure 6, VBB forward-biases
the B-E junction, and VCC reverse-biases
B-C junction. VCC is normally taken
directly from the power supply output
and VBB (which is smaller) can be
produced with a voltage divider.
 BJT DC Beta ( DC) and DC Alpha ( DC)

CHARACTERISTI • The DC current gain of a transistor is the ratio of IC to the IB

CS AND and is designated DC beta (βDC)
• Typical values βDC = 20-200. βDC usually designated as an
PARAMETERS equivalent hybrid (h) parameter, hFE, on transistor datasheets.

𝐼𝐶 h 𝐹𝐸= 𝛽 𝐷𝐶
𝛽 𝐷𝐶 =
𝐼𝐵 • The ratio of IC to IE is the DC alpha (αDC). The alpha is a less-
used parameter than beta in transistor circuits.

𝐼𝐶
𝛼 𝐷𝐶 =
𝐼𝐸

• Typically, αDC = 0.95 to 0.99 or greater (<1). The reason is

that IC is always slightly < IE by the amount of IB. For
example, if IE = 100 mA and IB = 1 mA, then IC = 99 mA
and αDC = 0.99.
EXAMPLE 1

Determine the dc current gain βDC and

the emitter current IE for a transistor
where IB = 50 mA and IC = 3.65 A.

IE = IB + IC = 3.65 A + .05 A = 3.7 A

A certain transistor has a βDC of 200.

When the base current is 50 mA,
determine the
collector current.
 • Unsaturated BJT as a device with a Iinput and a dependent I source in the
output circuit, Figure 7.
• The input circuit is a forward-biased diode through which there is base
current. The output circuit is a dependent current source (diamond-shaped
element) with a value that is dependent on IB, and equal to βDC /IB. Recall
that independent current source symbols have a circular shape.

Transistor
DC Model
BJT Circuit Analysis

• Basic transistor bias circuit configuration, Figure 8. Three transistor DC currents

and voltages can be identified.
IB: dc base current | IE: dc emitter current
IC: dc collector current | VBE: dc voltage at base with respect to emitter
VCB: dc voltage at collector with respect to base | VCE: dc voltage at collector
with respect to emitter
• The base-bias voltage source, VBB, forward-biases B-E junction, and the
collector-bias voltage source, VCC, reverse-biases B-C junction. When the B-E
junction is forward-biased, it is like a forward-biased diode and has a nominal
forward voltage drop of :
VBE ~ 0.7 V (eq. 3)
• Although in an actual transistor VBE ~ 0.9 V and is dependent on current (use 0.7
V).
BJT Circuit Analysis
Since E is at ground (0 V), by Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the voltage across RB is

By Ohm’s law,

Substituting for VRB yields

Solving for IB

The voltage at the collector with respect to the grounded E is

VCE = VCC - VRC
BJT Circuit Analysis
Since the drop across RC is
VRC = ICRC
the voltage at the collector with respect to the emitter can be written as
VCE=VCC-ICRC (eq. 5)
where
The voltage across the reverse-biased collector-base junction is
VCB=VCE-VBE (eq 6)
 Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE,
and VCB in the circuit of
EXAMPLE 2 Figure 9. The transistor has a
= 150

From Eq 3, VBE~ 0.7 V, calculate IB, IC, IE as follows:

Since the collector is at a higher

voltage than the base, the
collector-base junction is reverse-
biased
Solve for VCE and VCB.
Collector • Using a circuit 10(a), a set of collector characteristic curves can
Characteristic be generated that show how IC varies with VCE, for specified

Curves values IB.

• Note: Circuit diagram that both VBB & VCC are variable sources of
voltage.
• Assume: VBB set to produce a certain value of IB; VCC=0.
• For this condition, both B-E and B-C junctions are forward-biased
(base is at ~0.7 V while E and C are at 0 V.
• IB is through B-E junction because of the low impedance path to
ground and, therefore, IC is zero.
Collector
Characteristic Curves

• Saturation: state of a BJT in which IC has

reached a max and is independent of IB.
• As VCC is increased, VCE increases as IC. This is
indicated by the portion of the characteristic
curve between A and B, Figure 10(b).
• IC increases as VCC is increased because VCE
remains < 0.7 V due to the forward-biased
B-C junction.
 Collector
Characteristic Curves

• Ideally, when VCE> 0.7 V, B-C junction becomes Rbsed &

the transistor goes into the active, or linear, region of its
operation. Once B-C junction is reverse-biased, IC levels off
and remains essentially constant for a given value of IB as
VCE continues to increase.
• Actually, IC increases very slightly as VCE increases due to
widening of the base-collector depletion region. This
results in fewer holes for recombination in the base region
which effectively causes a slight increase in βDC(B and C in
Figure 10(b).
• In this portion, value of IC is determined only by the
relationship expressed as IC= βDCIB.
 Collector
Characteristic Curves

• VCE reaches a sufficiently high voltage, the

RBsed B-C junction => breakdown; and
the IC increases rapidly as (from C in
Figure 10(b).
• A transistor should never be operated in
this breakdown region.
Collector
Characteristic Curves
• A family of collector characteristic curves is
produced when IC vs. VCE is plotted for
several values IB, Figure 10(c).
• When IB=0, the transistor is in the cutoff
region although there is a very small
collector leakage current as indicated.
• Cutoff is the nonconducting state of a
transistor. The amount of ICL for IB=0 is
exaggerated on the graph for illustration.
 • Sketch an ideal family of collector curves for the circuit in Figure 11 for I B=
5 μA to 25 μ A in 5 μ A increments. Assume βDC = 100 and that VCE does
EXAMPLE 3 not exceed breakdown.
• Using the relationship IC bDCIB, values of IC are calculated and tabulated
in Table 1.
 EXAMPLE 3
• The resulting curves are plotted in
Figure 12.
Related Problem
• Where would the curve for IB=0
appear on the graph in Figure 12,
neglecting collector leakage
current?
Cutoff
• when IB=0, transistor is in cutoff region, Figure
13 with base lead open, resulting in an IC=0.
• Under this condition, there is a very small
amount of collector leakage current, ICEO, due
mainly to thermally produced carriers. Because
ICEO is extremely small, it will usually be
neglected in circuit analysis so that VCE=VCC. In
cutoff, neither B-E nor the B-C junctions are
forward-biased.
• The subscript CEO represents collector-to-
emitter with the base open.
 • When B-E junction becomes forward-biased and IB is
increased, IC also increases (IC= βDCIB) & VCE decreases as a
result of more drop across the collector resistor (VCE=VCC -
ICRC), Figure 14.
SATURATION • When VCE reaches VCE(sat), B-C junction becomes FBsed and IC
can increase no further even with a continued increase in IB.
• At the point of saturation, the relation IC= βDCIB is no longer
valid. VCE(sat) for a transistor occurs somewhere below the
knee of the collector curves, and it is usually only a few
tenths of a volt.
 DC LOAD LINE
• Cutoff and saturation can be illustrated in
relation to the collector characteristic curves
by the use of a load line.
• Figure 15 shows a dc load line drawn on a
family of curves connecting the cutoff point
and the saturation point. The bottom of the
load line is at ideal cutoff where IC=0 and
VCE=VCC. The top of the load line is at saturation
where IC=IC(sat) and VCE=VCE(sat). In between cutoff
and saturation along the load line is the active
region of the transistor’s operation.
 EXAMPLE 4
• Determine whether the transistor in Figure 16 is in
saturation. Assume VCE(sat) =0.2 V
• First, determine IC(sat).

• Now, see if IB is large enough to produce IC(sat).

IC= βDCIB=(50)x(0.23 mA) =11.5 mA

• With the specified βDC, this IB can produce an IC> IC(sat). Determine whether the transistor in
Figure 16 is saturated for the following
Therefore, the transistor is saturated, and IC (11.5 mA) is
values: βDCIB= 125, VBB=1.5 V, RB=6.8 kΩ,
never reached. If keep increasing IB, the IC = 9.8 mA.
RC=180 Ω and VCC=12 V.
 • βDC or hFE: an important BJT
parameter that need further
study. βDC is not truly
constant, varies with IC & T.
Keeping Tjunction= constant &
increasing IC causes βDC to
increase to a maximum.
• A further increase in IC
beyond this maximum point
causes βDC to decrease. If IC
held constant and T is varied,
βDC changes directly with T. If
T goes up, βDC goes up and
More About βDC vice versa.
 • A transistor datasheet usually
specifies βDC (hFE) at specific IC
values. Even at fixed values of
IC and T, βDC varies from one
device to another for a given
type of transistor due to
inconsistencies in the
manufacturing process that
are unavoidable.
• The βDC specified at a certain
value of IC is usually the
minimum value, βDC(min),
although the maximum and
More About βDC typical values are also
sometimes specified.
Maximum Transistor Ratings
• A BJT has limitations on its operation that are stated in the form of max
ratings and are normally specified on the manufacturer’s datasheet.
• Max ratings given for VCB, VCE, VEB voltage, IC, and power dissipation.
• VCE*IC must not exceed the max power dissipation. Both VCE & IC can’t be
maximum at the same time. If VCE is maximum, IC can be calculated as.

• If IC is max, VCE can be calculated by:

Maximum
Transistor Ratings
• For any given transistor, a max power
dissipation curve can be plotted on
the collector characteristic curves, as
Figure 18(a) and tabulated in Figure
18(b).
• Assume PD(max)=500mW, VCE(max)= 20V &
IC(max)=50mA. The curve shows that this
transistor can’t be operated in the
shaded portion of the graph.
• IC(max): limiting rating from A to B,
• PD(max): limiting rating from B to C, and
• VCE(max): limiting rating from C to D.
 EXAMPLE 6
• The transistor in Figure 19 has PD(max)= 800 mW, VCE(max)=15 V, &
IC(max) 100 mA. Determine max value to which VCC can be
adjusted without exceeding a rating. Which rating would be
exceeded first?

• First, find IB so that you can determine IC.

• IC << IC(max) & ideally won’t change with VCC. It is determined only by IB and βDC.
• The voltage drop across RC is: VRC = IC*RC = (19.5 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 19.5 V
• Determine the value of VCC when VCE=VCE(max)=15 V: VRC = VCC - VCE
• So,
VCC(max) = VCE(max) + VRC = 15 V + 19.5 V = 34.5 V
 EXAMPLE 6
• The transistor in Figure 19 has PD(max)= 800 mW, VCE(max)=15 V, &
IC(max) 100 mA. Determine max value to which VCC can be
adjusted without exceeding a rating. Which rating would be
exceeded first?

VCC(max) = VCE(max) + VRC = 15 V + 19.5 V = 34.5 V

• VCC can be to 34.5 V, under the existing conditions, before VCE(max) is exceeded. However, at this point it
is not known whether PD(max) has been exceeded.
PD = VCE(max)*IC = (15 V)*(19.5 mA) = 293 mW
• Since PD(max)= 800 mW, it is not exceeded when VCC=34.5 V. So, VCE(max)=15 V is the limiting rating in this
case. If IB is removed causing the transistor to turn off, VCE(max) will be exceeded first because the entire
supply voltage, VCC, will be dropped across the transistor.
Derating PD(max)
• PD(max) is usually specified at 25°C. For higher T, PD(max) is less.
Datasheets often give derating factors for determining PD(max) at any
T>25°C. For example, a derating factor of 2 mW/°C indicates that Pmax
dissipation is reduced 2 mW for each 0C.
EXAMPLE 7
• A certain transistor has a PD(max) of 1 W at 25°C. The derating factor is 5 mW/°C. What is the
PD(max) at 70°C?
• Solution
The change (reduction) in PD(max) is
ΔPD(max) = (5 mW/°C)*(70°C - 25°C) = 225 mW

• Therefore, the PD(max) at 70°C is

1 W - 225 mW = 775 mW
• Related Problem
• A transistor has a PD(max)=5 W at 25°C. The derating factor is 10 mW/°C. What is the PD(max) at 70°C?
BJT Datasheet
 THE BJT AS AN AMPLIFIER - VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION
• A transistor amplifies I because IC = IBxβ. IB
in a transistor << IC and IE. Because of this,
IC ~ IE.
• Let’s look at the circuit in Figure 21. An ac
voltage, Vs, is superimposed on the dc
bias voltage VBB by capacitive coupling as
shown. The dc bias voltage VCC is
connected to the collector through the
collector resistor, RC.
• The ac Vin produces an ac IC, which
results in a much larger ac collector
current. The ac IC produces an ac V across
RC, thus producing an amplified, but
inverted, reproduction of the ac Vin in
the active region of operation, Figure 21.
 THE BJT AS AN AMPLIFIER - VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION
• The FB B-E junction presents a very low R
to the ac signal. This internal ac emitter
resistance is designated in Figure 21 and
appears in series with RB. The ac base
voltage is:
Vb = IeR’e
• The ac Vc, equals the ac voltage drop
across RC. Since the ac collector voltage is

Vc=Ie*RC
• Vb considered the transistor ac Vin where
Vb=Vs-IbRB. Vc considered the transistor ac
Vout. Since voltage gain is defined as the
ratio of the Vout/Vin, the ratio of Vc/Vb is
the ac voltage gain, Av, of the transistor
 THE BJT AS AN AMPLIFIER - VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION
• Substituting Ie*RC for Vc and Ie for Vb
yields

• The Ie terms cancel; therefore,

Eq. 7 shows that the transistor in Figure 21 provides amplification in the

form of voltage gain, which is dependent on the values of RC and IeR’e.
Since RC is always >R’e, the Vout> Vin.
 EXAMPLE 9
• Determine the voltage gain and the ac output
voltage in Figure 22 if R’e = 50 Ω.
 • (a), the transt is in the cutoff region ‘cause B-E junction is not FBsed. In this
condition, there is, ideally, an open between C and E, as indicated by the switch
equivalent.
• (b), the transistor is in the saturation region ‘cause B-E junction and the B-C
junction are FBsed and IB is made large enough to cause the IC to reach its
saturation value. In this condition, there is, ideally, a short between C & E, as

THE BJT indicated by the switch equivalent.

• Actually, a small voltage drop across the transistor of up to a few tenths of a

AS A volt normally occurs, which is the saturation voltage, V CE(sat).

SWITCH -
Switching
Operation
 • Conditions in Cutoff a transistor is in the cutoff region when B-E
junction is not forward-biased. Neglecting leakage current, all
the currents =0, and VCE= VCC.

VCE(cutoff)=VCC

THE BJT • Conditions in Saturation when B-E junction is FBsed and there is
AS A enough IB to produce a max IC, the transistor is saturated. The
formula for collector saturation current is:
SWITCH -
Switching
Operation • Since VCE(sat) << VCC, it can usually be neglected. The minimum
value of IB needed to produce saturation is:

• Normally, IB should be significantly greater than IB(min) to ensure

that the transistor is saturated.
EXAMPLE 10
a) For the transistor circuit in Figure 24, what is VCE when VIN=0 V?
b) Minimum IB is required to saturate this transistor if βDC = 200? Neglect VCE(sat).
c) Calculate the maximum value of RB when VIN = 5 V
Solution
a) When VIN=0 V, the transistor is in cutoff (acts like an open switch) and VCE = VCC = 10 V
b) VCE(sat) is neglected (assumed to be 0 V)

Any further increase in IB keep transistor remains in saturation but there cannot be any further increase in IC.
c) When the transistor is on, VBE~ 0.7 V. The voltage across RB is
VRB = VIN-VBE=5 V-0.7 V = 4.3 V
Calculate the max RB needed to allow a minimum IB of 50 A using Ohm’s law as follows:
 A Simple Application
of a Transistor Switch

• Trans in 25 used as a switch to turn the LED on and off.

• Example: a square wave (SW) VIN with a period=2 s is
applied to the input.
• When SW =0 V, the transistor is in cutoff; and since
there ICC=0, the LED does not emit light
• When SW goes to its high level, the transistor
saturates. This forward-biases the LED => ICC
through the LED causes it to emit light.
• Thus, the LED is on for 1 second and off for 1 second.
EXAMPLE 11
• LED, Fig. 25 requires 30 mA to emit a sufficient level of light => ICC should be ~ 30 mA. Determine the
amplitude of the SW VIN for saturated region.
• Use double the min value of IB as a safety margin to ensure saturation. VCC=9 V, VCE(sat)=0.3 V, RC=220 Ω,
RB=3.3 k Ω, βDC=50, and VLED=1.6 V.

• To ensure saturation, use 2 x IB(min), which is 1.29 mA. Use Ohm’s law to solve for Vin.
THE PHOTOTRANSISTOR (PT)
• In a PT, IB is produced when illuminating photosensitive semiconductor base
region. The C-B pn junction is exposed to incident light through a lens opening in
the transistor package.
• When there is no incident light, there is only a small thermally generated I CEO; this
dark current ~ nA range.
• When light strikes C-B pn junction, a base current, Iλ, is produced that is directly
proportional to the light intensity.
• Except for the way IB is generated, the phototransistor behaves as a conventional
BJT. In many cases, there is no electrical connection to the base. The relationship
between the collector current and the light-generated base current in a
phototransistor is:
THE • Typical phototransistors, Figure 26. Since the actual photogeneration
of IB occurs in the collector-base region, the larger the physical area of
PHOTOTRANSIS this region, the more IB is generated. Thus, a typical phototransistor is
designed to offer a large area to the incident light, as the simplified
TOR (PT) structure diagram in Figure 27 illustrates.
 PHOTOTRANSIS
TOR
• A PT can be 2 or-lead device. In 3-
lead config, the base lead is brought
out so that the device can be used as
a conventional BJT with or without
the additional light-sensitivity
feature. In 2-lead config, the base is
not electrically available, and the
device can be used only with light as
the input. 2-lead config is more
popular.
 PHOTOTRANSIS
TOR
• Phototransistors are not sensitive to
all light but only to light within a
certain range of wavelengths. They
are most sensitive to wavelengths in
the red and infrared part of the
spectrum, Fig. 29.
THE PT - APPLICATIONS

• When there is sufficient incident

light on Q1, Q2 is driven into
saturation, and IC through the
relay coil energizes the relay. The
diode across the relay coil
prevents, by its limiting action, a
large voltage transient from • When there is insufficient light, Q2 is biased on,
occurring at the collector of Q2 keeping the relay energized. When there is
when the transistor turns off, sufficient light, phototransistor Q1 turns on; this
30(a). pulls the base of Q2 low, thus turning Q2 off and
de-energizing the relay, 30 (b).
 OPTOCOUPLER

• An optocoupler uses an LED optically

coupled to a photodiode or a
phototransistor in a single package.
Two basic types are LED-to-photodiode
and LED-to-phototransistor, Figure 31.
Typical packages, Figure 32.
 OPTOCOUPLER (OC)
• Key parameter: CTR (current transfer ratio), an
indication of how efficiently a signal is coupled from
input to output and is expressed as the ratio of a change
in the LED current to the corresponding change in the
photodiode or phototransistor current, in %.
• Figure 33, typical graph of CTR versus forward LED
current, from about 50% to about 110%.
• OCs used to isolate sections of a circuit that are
incompatible in terms of the voltage levels or currents
required. E.g.: used to protect patients from shock when
they are connected to monitoring instruments or other
devices.
• They are also used to isolate low-current control or
signal circuits from noisy power supply circuits or
higher-current motor and machine circuits.
 TRANSISTOR CATEGORIES AND PACKAGING
• General-Purpose/Small-
Signal Transistors: generally
used for low- or medium-
power amplifiers or switching
circuits. The packages are
either plastic or metal cases.
Certain types of packages
contain multiple transistors,
figure 34. Figure 35 shows
multiple-transistor packages.
Some of the multiple-
transistor packages such as
the dual in-line (DIP) and the
small-outline (SO) are the
same as those used for many
integrated circuits. Typical pin
connections are shown so
you can identify the emitter,
base, and collector
 TRANSISTOR CATEGORIES AND PACKAGING
• Power Transistors used to
handle large currents
(typically > 1 A) and/or large
voltages. E.g.: the final audio
stage in a stereo system uses
a power transistor amplifier
to drive the speakers, Figure
36. The metal tab or the
metal case is common to the
collector and is thermally
connected to a heat sink for
heat dissipation. Notice in
part (e) how the small
transistor chip is mounted
inside the much larger
package.
 • RF Transistors are designed to operate at extremely
TRANSISTOR high frequencies and are commonly used for various
purposes in communications systems and other high
CATEGORIES AND frequency applications. Their unusual shapes and
lead configurations are designed to optimize certain
PACKAGING high-frequency parameters. Figure 37 shows some
examples.