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Chapter 10

Introduction and
Properties of Fluids

Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
 Objectives
• Understand the basic concepts of Fluid Mechanics.
• Recognize the various types of fluid flow problems encountered
in practice.
• Understand the vapor pressure and its role in the occurrence of
cavitation.
• Have a working knowledge of viscosity and the consequences of
the frictional effects it causes in fluid flow.
• Calculate the capillary rises and drops due to the surface tension
effect.

© McGraw Hill 2
 10–1 The No-Slip Condition 1

Consider the flow of a fluid in a

stationary pipe or over a solid surface
that is nonporous (that is, impermeable
to the fluid).
All experimental observations indicate
that a fluid in motion comes to a
complete stop at the surface and
assumes a zero velocity relative to the
surface. That is, a fluid in direct
contact with a solid “sticks” to the
surface, and there is no slip. This is
known as the no-slip condition.
The development of a velocity
profile due to the no-slip condition The fluid property responsible for the
as a fluid flows over a blunt nose. no-slip condition and the development
of the boundary layer is viscosity.

© McGraw Hill “Hunter Rouse: Laminar and Turbulence Flow Film.” Copyright I I HR-Hydroscience & Engineering. The University of Iowa. Used by permission. 3
 10–1 The No-Slip Condition 2

Boundary layer: The flow region

adjacent to the wall in which the
viscous effects (and thus the
velocity gradients) are significant.

Flow separation during flow over a

curved surface.
A fluid flowing over a stationary
surface comes to a complete stop
at the surface because of the no-
slip condition.

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© McGraw Hill Gary S. Settles & Jason Listak/Science Source 4

 10–2 Classification of Fluid Flows
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow

Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.

Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions
(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are negligibly
small compared to inertial or pressure forces.

The flow of an originally uniform fluid

stream over a flat plate, and the regions of
viscous flow (next to the plate on both
sides) and inviscid flow (away from the
plate).

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© McGraw Hill Fundamentals of Boundry Layers, National Committee for Fluid Mechanics Films, © Education Development Center. 5
 Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a
wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is bounded by solid surfaces.

Water flow in a pipe is internal flow, and

airflow over a ball is external flow.
The flow of liquids in a duct is called
open-channel flow if the duct is only
partially filled with the liquid and there is
a free surface.

External flow over a tennis ball, and

the turbulent wake region behind.

© McGraw Hill Courtesy of NASA and Cislunar Aerospace, Inc. 6

 Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the density of flowing
fluid remains nearly constant throughout (for
example, liquid flow).
Compressible flow: If the density of fluid changes
during flow (for example, high-speed gas flow)
When analyzing rockets, spacecraft, and other
systems that involve high-speed gas flows, the flow
speed is often expressed by Mach number

𝑉 Speed   of   flow
Ma= =
𝑐 Speed   of   sound

Ma = 1 Sonic flow Schlieren image of the spherical shock wave

Ma < 1 Subsonic flow produced by a bursting ballon at the Penn State
Gas Dynamics Lab. Several secondary shocks
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow
are seen in the air surrounding the balloon.
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow

© McGraw Hill © G.S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab, Penn State University. Used with permission. 7
 Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow: The highly ordered
fluid motion characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of high-
viscosity fluids such as oils at low
velocities is typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that typically
occurs at high velocities and is
characterized by velocity fluctuations.
The flow of low- viscosity fluids such
as air at high velocities is typically
turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow that Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows
alternates between being laminar and over a flat plate
turbulent.

© McGraw Hill Courtesy of ONERA. Photo by Werlé. 8

 Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
Forced flow: A fluid is forced to flow
over a surface or in a pipe by external
means such as a pump or a fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is due to
natural means such as the buoyancy
effect, which manifests itself as the
rise of warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
and the fall of cooler (and thus
denser) fluid.

In this schlieren image of a girl in a

swimming suit, the rise of lighter, warmer air
adjacent to her body indicates that humans
and warm-blooded animals are surrounded
by thermal plumes of rising warm air.

© McGraw Hill © G.S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab, Penn State University. Used with permission. 9
 Steady versus Unsteady Flow 1

The term steady implies no change at a point with time.

The opposite of steady is unsteady.
In fluid mechanics, unsteady is the most general term that
applies to any flow that is not steady, but transient is typically used
for developing flows.
The term uniform implies no change with location over a specified
region.
The term periodic refers to the kind of unsteady flow in which
the flow oscillates about a steady mean.
Many devices such as turbines, compressors, boilers, condensers, and
heat exchangers operate for long periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices.

© McGraw Hill 10
 Steady versus Unsteady Flow 2

Comparison of (a) instantaneous snapshot of an unsteady flow, and (b) long

exposure picture of the same flow.

© McGraw Hill Photos by Eric G. Paterson. Used by permission. 11

 Steady versus Unsteady Flow 3

Oscillating wake of a blunt-based

airfoil at Mach number 0.6. Photo (a)
is an instantaneous image, while
photo (b) is a long-exposure (time-
averaged) image.

(a) Dyment, A., Flodrops, J. P. & Gryson, P. 1982

in Flow Visualization II, W. Merzkirch, ed., 331–
336. Washington: Hemisphere. Used by permission
of Arthur Dyment.
(b) Dyment, A. & Gryson, P. 1978 in Inst. Mèc.
Fluides Lille, No. 78-5. Used by permission of
Arthur Dyment.

© McGraw Hill 12
 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows 1

A flow field is best characterized by its velocity distribution.

A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity varies
in one, two, or three dimensions, respectively.
However, the variation of velocity in certain directions can be small relative to
the variation in other directions and can be ignored.

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z) and thus the flow is
two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional downstream when
the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in the flow direction, V = V(r).

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© McGraw Hill 13
 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows 2

Flow over a car antenna is approximately two-dimensional except near the top and
bottom of the antenna.

© McGraw Hill 14
 Uniform versus Nonuniform Flow
Uniform flow implies that all fluid properties, such as velocity,
pressure, temperature, etc., do not vary with position.
A wind tunnel test section, for example, is designed such that the air
flow is as uniform as possible.
Even then, however, the flow does not remain uniform as we
approach the wind tunnel walls, due to the no-slip condition and the
presence of a boundary layer.
The flow just downstream of a well-rounded pipe entrance is nearly
uniform, again except for a very thin boundary layer near the wall.
In engineering practice, it is common to approximate the flow in
ducts and pipes and at inlets and outlets as uniform, even when it is
not, for simplicity in calculations.

© McGraw Hill 15
 10–3 Vapor Pressure and Cavitation 1

Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at which a pure

substance changes phase at a given pressure.
Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a pure substance
changes phase at a given temperature.
Vapor pressure (Pv): The pressure exerted by its vapor in phase
equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature. It is identical to
the saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (Pv = Psat).
Partial pressure: The pressure of a gas or vapor in a mixture with
other gases. For example, atmospheric air is a mixture of dry air
and water vapor, and atmospheric pressure is the sum of the partial
pressure of dry air and the partial pressure of water vapor.

© McGraw Hill 16
 10–3 Vapor Pressure and
Cavitation 2
Table 10–1: Saturation (or vapor)
pressure of water at various temperatures
Temperature Saturation Pressure
T, °C Psat, kPa
−10 0.260
−5 0.403
0 0.611
5 0.872
10 1.23
15 1.71
20 2.34
25 3.17
30 4.25
The vapor pressure (saturation pressure) of a 40 7.38
pure substance (for example, water) is the 50 12.35

pressure exerted by its vapor molecules when 100 101.3 (1 atm)

150 475.8
the system is in phase equilibrium with its
200 1554
liquid molecules at a given temperature. 250 3973
300 8581

© McGraw Hill 17
 10–3 Vapor Pressure and Cavitation 3

There is a possibility of the liquid pressure

in liquid-flow systems dropping below the
vapor pressure at some locations, and the
resulting unplanned vaporization.
The vapor bubbles (called cavitation
bubbles since they form “cavities” in the
liquid) collapse as they are swept away
from the low-pressure regions, generating
highly destructive, extremely high-
pressure waves.
This phenomenon, which is a common Cavitation damage on a 16-mm by 23-mm
cause for drop in performance and even aluminum sample tested at 60 m/s for 2.5 h.
the erosion of impeller blades, is called The sample was located at the cavity
cavitation, and it is an important collapse region downstream of a cavity
consideration in the design of hydraulic generator specifically designed to produce
turbines and pumps. high damage potential.

© McGraw Hill Photograph by David Stinebring, ARL/ Pennsylvania State University. Used by permission. 18
 10–4 Viscosity 1

Viscosity: A property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion

or the “fluidity.”
Drag force: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction.
The magnitude of this force depends, in part, on viscosity.

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of

its “resistance to deformation.”
Viscosity is due to the internal frictional
force that develops between different
layers of fluids as they are forced to
move relative to each other.
A fluid moving relative to a body exerts a
drag force on the body, partly because of
friction caused by viscosity.

© McGraw Hill Top: © Photodisc/Getty Images RF Bottom: © Digital Vision/Getty Images RF 19

 10–4 Viscosity 2

Newtonian fluids: Fluids for which the

rate of deformation is proportional to the
shear stress.

𝑑𝛽 𝑑𝑢
𝜏∝ or 𝜏 ∝
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇 ( N / m 2 ) Shear stress
𝑑𝑦
The behavior of a fluid in laminar flow Shear force
between two parallel plates when the upper 𝑑𝑢
plate moves with a constant velocity. 𝐹 =𝜏 Α=𝜇 Α (N)
𝑑𝑦
𝐹 𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑉 μ coefficient of viscosity
𝜏= 𝑢 ( 𝑦 )= 𝑉 and = Dynamic (absolute) viscosity
A ℓ 𝑑𝑦 ℓ
𝑑𝑎 𝑉 dt 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝛽 𝑑𝑢 kg / m⋅ s  or  N ⋅s / m 2  or  Pa⋅ s
𝑑 𝛽≈ tan❑𝑑 𝛽= = = 𝑑𝑡 =
ℓ ℓ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 1   poise=0.1  Pa ⋅ s
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© McGraw Hill 20
 10–4 Viscosity 3

Variation of shear stress with the rate

The rate of deformation (velocity gradient) of
of deformation for Newtonian and non-
a Newtonian fluid is proportional to shear
Newtonian fluids (the slope of a curve
stress, and the constant of proportionality is
at a point is the apparent viscosity of
the viscosity.
the fluid at that point).

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© McGraw Hill 21
 Kinematic viscosity 1

𝑣=𝜇/ 𝜌 m2 / s    or  stoke
1   stoke=1   c m 2 / s
For liquids, both the dynamic and kinematic
viscosities are practically independent of
pressure, and any small variation with
pressure is usually disregarded, except at
extremely high pressures.
For gases, this is also the case for dynamic
viscosity (at low to moderate pressures), but
not for kinematic viscosity since the density
of a gas is proportional to its pressure.

𝑎 𝑇 1 /2 For gases
𝜇= Dynamic viscosity, in general, does
1+𝑏/𝑇
not depend on pressure, but
𝑏/( 𝑇 − 𝑐 ) For liquids
𝜇=𝑎10 kinematic viscosity does.
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© McGraw Hill 22
 Kinematic viscosity 2

The viscosity of a fluid is directly related to the

pumping power needed to transport a fluid in a pipe or
to move a body through a fluid.
Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces between the
molecules in liquids and by the molecular collisions in
gases, and it varies greatly with temperature.
In a liquid, the molecules possess more energy at
higher temperatures, and they can oppose the large
cohesive intermolecular forces more strongly. As a
result, the energized liquid molecules can move more
freely.
In a gas, the intermolecular forces are negligible, and
the gas molecules at high temperatures move randomly
The viscosity of liquids decreases
and the viscosity of gases increases at higher velocities. This results in more molecular
with temperature. collisions per unit volume per unit time and therefore
in greater resistance to flow.

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© McGraw Hill 23
 Kinematic viscosity 3

The variation of dynamic (absolute)

viscosity of common fluids with
temperature at 1 atm

( 1 N ⋅s / m 2=1  kg / m ⋅s  =0.020886  lbf ⋅s / f t2 )

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© McGraw Hill Data from EES and F. M. White, Fluid Mechanics 7e.Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 24
 Kinematic viscosity 4

Table 10–2: Dynamic viscosity of some fluids at 1 atm and 20°C (unless otherwise stated)
Dynamic Viscosity
Fluid μ, kg/m⋅s
Glycerin:
-20°C 134.0
0°C 10.5
20°C 1.52
40°C 0.31
Engine oil:
SAE 10W 0.10
SAE 10W30 0.17
SAE 30 0.29
SAE 50 0.86
Mercury 0.0015
Ethyl alcohol 0.0012
Water:
0°C 0.0018
20°C 0.0010
100°C (liquid) 0.00028
100°C (vapor) 0.000012
Blood, 37°C 0.00040
Gasoline 0.00029
Ammonia 0.00015
Air 0.000018
Hydrogen, 0°C 0.0000088

© McGraw Hill 25
 Kinematic viscosity 5

L length of the cylinder

𝑛˙ number of revolutions per

unit time

2 𝜋 𝑅3 𝜔 𝐿 4 𝜋 2 𝑅 3 𝑛˙ 𝐿 𝜔=2 𝜋 𝑛˙
T =FR=𝜇 =𝜇
ℓ ℓ
This equation can be used to calculate the viscosity of a fluid by measuring
torque at a specified angular velocity.
Therefore, two concentric cylinders can be used as a viscometer, a device that
measures viscosity.
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© McGraw Hill 26
 10–5 Surface Tension and Capillary Effect 1

Liquid droplets behave like small balloons filled with the liquid on a solid
surface, and the surface of the liquid acts like a stretched elastic membrane
under tension.
The pulling force that causes this tension acts parallel to the surface and is due to
the attractive forces between the molecules of the liquid.
The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface tension (or
coefficient of surface tension) and is usually expressed in the unit N/m.
This effect is also called surface energy [per unit area] and is expressed in the
equivalent unit of N ⋅m / m 2 .

© McGraw Hill 27
 10–5 Surface Tension and Capillary Effect 2

(a) © Don Paulson Photography/Purestock/SuperStock RF

(b) NPS Photo by Rosalie LaRue
(c) © G.S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab, Penn State University.
Used with permission.

Some consequences of surface tension: (a) drops of water beading up on a leaf, (b) a
water strider sitting on top of the surface of water, and (c) a color schlieren image of the
water strider revealing how the water surface dips down where its feet contact the water
(it looks like two insects but the second one is just a shadow).

© McGraw Hill 28
 10–5 Surface Tension and Capillary Effect 3

Attractive forces acting on a

liquid molecule at the surface and
deep inside the liquid.

𝐹 Stretching a liquid film with a U-

𝜎 𝑠=
2𝑏 shaped wire, and the forces acting
𝑊 =Force× Distance ¿ 𝐹 Δ 𝑥=2𝑏 𝜎 𝑠 Δ 𝑥=𝜎 𝑠 Δ 𝐴 on the movable wire of length b.
Surface tension: The work done per unit
increase in the surface area of the liquid.
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© McGraw Hill 29
 10–5 Surface Tension and Capillary Effect 4

Table 10–3: Surface tension of some fluids in air at 1 atm and 20°C (unless otherwise stated)

Fluid Surface Tension σs, N/m*

†
Water:
0°C 0.076
20°C 0.073
1000C 0.059
3000C 0.014
Glycerin 0.063
SAE 30 oil 0.035
Mercury 0.440
Ethyl alcohol 0.023
Blood, 37°C 0.058
Gasoline 0.022
Ammonia 0.021
Soap solution 0.025
Kerosene 0.028

© McGraw Hill 30
 10–5 Surface Tension and Capillary Effect 5

The free-body diagram of half a droplet or

air bubble and half a soap bubble.

2𝜎𝑠
Droplet or air bubble : ( 2 𝜋 𝑅 ) 𝜎 𝑠=( 𝜋 𝑅 ) Δ 𝑃 droplet → Δ 𝑃 droplet =𝑃 𝑖 − 𝑃 𝑜=
2
𝑅
4 𝜎𝑠
Soap bubble:2 ( 2 𝜋 𝑅 ) 𝜎 𝑠 =( 𝜋 𝑅 ) Δ 𝑃 bubble → Δ 𝑃 bubble =𝑃 𝑖 − 𝑃 𝑜 =
2
𝑅
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© McGraw Hill 31
 Capillary Effect 1

Capillary effect: The rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the
liquid.
Capillaries: Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels.
The capillary effect is partially responsible for the rise of water to the top of tall trees.
Meniscus: The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube.
The strength of the capillary effect is quantified by the contact (or wetting) angle,
defined as the angle that the tangent to the liquid surface makes with the solid
surface at the point of contact.

The contact angle for wetting and

nonwetting fluids.

© McGraw Hill 32
 Capillary Effect 2

The meniscus of colored water in two small-diameter glass tubes.

Note that the edge of the meniscus meets the wall of the capillary
tube at a very small contact angle.

© McGraw Hill Matt Meadows/McGraw-Hill Education 33

 Capillary Effect 3

The capillary rise of water and the The forces acting on a liquid
capillary fall of mercury in a small- column that has risen in a tube
diameter glass tube. due to the capillary effect.
2𝜎𝑠
Capillary rise :h= cos 𝜙 ( 𝑅=constant )
𝜌 𝑔𝑅
Capillary rise is inversely proportional to the radius of the tube and density of the
liquid.
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© McGraw Hill 34
 Summary
• The No-Slip Condition.
• Classification of Fluid Flows.
• Vapor Pressure and Cavitation.
• Viscosity.
• Surface Tension and Capillary Effect.

© McGraw Hill 35
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