UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF SCIENCES

Academic Unit IV
Bachelor of Engineering
(Computer Science & Engineering)
Biology For Engineers
21SZ148

By
Dr. Devinder Kaur

DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER

 Course Objective
• This subject is designed to impart
fundamental knowledge on basic
and emerging fields of biology
like bioinformatics.

• It is designed to impart
knowledge that how to apply
basics of biology in engineering.
https://images.app.goo.gl/pfWfHfCFP56qo7wC7
 Course Outcome
CO
Title Level
Number
Identify the biological concepts from an Remember
CO1
engineering perspective.  
Development of artificial systems mimicking Understand
CO2
human action.  
Explain the basic of genetics that helps to identify
CO3 Understand
and formulate problems

Apply knowledge of measurement system,

biomedical recording system and biosensors to Understand
CO4
excel in areas such as entrepreneurship,  
medicine, government, and education.
Will be covered in this lecture
Integrate biological principles for developing next
CO5
generation technologies https://images.app.goo.gl/5obqqxo93P2UBmdU6
 SYLLABUS
Unit-2 Biosensors and measurement system Contact Hours: 15
Chapter 1 Medical Instrumentation: Sources of biomedical Signals, Basic medical
Medical Instrumentation system, Performance requirements of medical Instrumentation
Instrumentation System, Microprocessors in Medical instruments, PC base medical Instruments,
General constraints in the design of medical Instrumentation system, Regulation
of Medical Devices.
Chapter 2 Measurement System: Specification of instruments, Statics & Dynamic
Measurement characteristics of medical instruments, Classification of errors. Statistical analysis,
Reliability, Accuracy, Fidelity, Speed of responses, Linearization of technique, and
System Data Acquisition System.
Biological sensors: Sensors/ receptors in the human body, basic organization of
Chapter 3 the nervous system- neural mechanism, Chemoreceptor: hot and cold receptors,
sensors for smell, sound, vision, Ion exchange membrane electrodes, enzyme,
Biological glucose sensors, immunosensors, & biosensors & applications of biosensors.
Sensor
 
Biosensors

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Sensor

• A sensor is a converter that measures a physical quantity and

converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by
an instrument.

Transducer

• A device that is capable of converting the physical quantity into a

proportional electrical quantity such as voltage or current.

Biosensor

• A sensor that integrates a biological element with a

physiochemical transducer to produce an electronic signal
proportional to a single analyte which is then conveyed to a
detector. 6
 Biosensor
• A biosensor is an analytical device, used for
the detection of an analyte, that combines a
biological component with a physicochemical
detector.
• A biosensor is an analytical device containing
an immobilized biological material (enzyme,
antibody, nucleic acid, hormone, organelle or
whole cell) which can specifically interact with
an analyte and produce physical, chemical or
electrical signals that can be measured.
• An analyte is a compound (e.g. glucose, urea,
drug, pesticide) whose concentration has to be
measured.
• For instance, glucose is an 'analyte' in a
biosensor designed to detect glucose.
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 Biosensor
• It is an analytical device which
converts a biological response
into an electrical signal.
• It detects, records, and
transmits information
regarding a physiological
change or process.
• It determines the presence
and concentration of a specific
substance in any test solution.
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 GENERAL FEATURES OF BIOSENSOR
• Biosensors are devices comprising a
biological element and a physiochemical
detector that are used to detect analytes.

• A biosensor has two components

1. Biological component: Enzyme, cell
etc.
2. Physical component: Transducer,
amplifier etc.
• Biological component (Enzyme, cell etc.)
recognizes and interacts with the
analyte to produce a physical change (a
signal) that can be detected, by the
transducer.
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 Basic Principle of Biosensor
• Basic principle of biosensor involved in three element :
1. Biological recognition element which highly specific towards the biological
material analytes produces.
2. Transducers detect and transduces signal from biological target - receptor
molecule to electrical signal which is due to reaction occur.
3. After transduction, signal from biological to electrical signal where its
amplification is necessary and takes place and read out in detector after
processing the values are displayed for monitor and controlling the system.

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 Working Principle of Biosensor
• The biological material is immobilized and a contact is made
between the immobilized biological material and the transducer
• The analyte binds to the biological material to form a bound
analyte which in turn produces the biological response that
can be measured.
• Sometimes the analyte is converted to a product which could be
associated with the release of heat, gas (oxygen), electrons or
hydrogen ions.
• The transducer measures this interaction and outputs a signal.
• The intensity of the signal output is proportional to the
concentration of the analyte.
• The transducer then converts the product linked changes into
electrical signals which can be amplified and measured by the
electronic system.
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12
 THE ANALYTE
A substance of interest that needs detection

Chemical substance Biological constituent

Glucose Protein

Ammonia Toxin

Alcohol Peptide

Lactose Vitamin

Metal ion Antibody 13

 BIORECEPTOR
(Biological Element)
The component used to bind the target
molecule

Must be highly specific, stable under

storage conditions, and immobilized
• Microorganism
• Tissue
• Cell
• Organelle
• Nucleic acid
• Enzyme
• Enzyme component
• Receptor
• Antibody 14
 BIORECEPTOR
(Biological Element)
Biosensors basically involve the quantitative analysis of
various substances by converting their biological actions
into measurable signals

Interact specifically with a target compound i.e. the compound

to be detected.
It must be capable of detecting the presence of a target
compound in the test solution

The ability of bio-element to interact specifically with target

compound (specificity) is the basis for biosensor.

The specific interaction results in a change in one or more

physicochemical properties (pH change, electron transfer,
mass change, heat transfer, uptake or release of gases or
specific ions) which are detected and measured by the
transducer
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 TRANSDUCER
(Physiochemical Element)
A device that transforms energy from one form to another.
Electrical transducers generate electrical signal
Mechanical transducers generate physical signal
The transducer is a key element in a biosensor. 
Acts as an interface, measuring the physical change that occurs with
the reaction at bioreceptor then transforming that energy into
measurable electrical output
It converts the biorecognition event into a measurable signal
(electrical) that connects with the quantity or in the presence of a
chemical or biological target.
This process of energy conversion is known as signalization.
Transducers generate either optical or electrical signals proportional to
the number of analyte–bioreceptor interactions.

According to the operating principle, transducers are broadly

categorized as electrochemical, thermal, optical, electronic, and
gravimetric transducers 16
 DETECTOR
Signals from the transducer are passed to a microprocessor where they are amplified and analyzed

The data is then converted to concentration units and transferred to a display or/and data storage
device
The display unit is composed of a user interpretation system, such as a computer or a printer that
generates the output so that the corresponding response can be readable and understandable by
the user.
Depending on the end-user prerequisite, the output can be in the form of a numerical, graphical, or
tabular value, or a figure.

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 Types of Biosensors
Electrochemical Biosensor
• Conductimetric Sensors
• Amperometric Sensors
• Potentiometric

Optical Biosensor

Enzyme Biosensor

Immunosensors

Wearable Biosensors
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 Electrochemical Biosensor
Many chemical reactions produce or consume ions or causing some change in the
electrical properties of the solution that can be sensed out & used as a measuring
parameter.
• Such types of rection are called Redox reactions
• The substrate of this biosensor generally includes three electrodes such as a counter,
reference, and working type.
• The object analyte is engaged in the response that happens on the surface of an active
electrode, and this reaction may source also electron transfer across the dual-layer
potential.
• The current can be calculated at a set potential.
• Electrochemical biosensors are classified into three types:
• Amperometric Biosensors
• Potentiometric Biosensors
• Impedimetric Biosensors

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 Amperometric Biosensor
Amperometric for applied current: Movement of e- in
redox reactions detected when a potential is applied
between two electrodes.
• An amperometric biosensor is a self-contained incorporated device
based on the amount of the current ensuing from the oxidation
offering exact quantitative analytical information.
• These biosensors are based on the movement of electrons (i.e.
determination of electric current) as a result of enzyme-catalysed
redox reactions.
• Normally, a constant voltage passes between the electrodes which
can be determined.
• Generally, these Biosensors have reaction times, energetic ranges &
sensitivities comparable to the Potentiometric-biosensors.
• The simple amperometric biosensor infrequent usage includes the
“Clark oxygen electrode”.
• In an enzymatic reaction that occurs, the substrate or product can
transfer an electron with the electrode surface to be oxidised or
reduced  22
 Potentiometric Biosensor
Potentiometric for voltage: Change in distribution of charge is
detected using ion-selective electrodes.
• This type of biosensor provides a logarithmic reply by means of a high energetic range.
• They comprise two electrodes that are enormously responsive and strong.
• For example pH meters.
• These changes might be credited to ionic force, hydration, pH, and redox responses, the latter
as the label of enzyme rotating above a substrate. 
• They allow the recognition of analytes on stages before only attainable by HPLC, LC/MS &
without exact model preparation.
• The main types of potentiometric biosensors are
• ISE or Ion-Selective Electrodes based on the membrane,
• ISFET (Ion-Selective Field Effect Transistors),
• Solid state devices,
• Screen-Printed Electrodes & modified electrodes through chemically like metal oxides
otherwise electrodeposited polymers like sensitive layers.
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 Impedimetric Biosensor
This type of biosensors is measures the
conductance of Impedance.

• The EIS (Electrochemical impedance

spectroscopy) is a responsive indicator for a
broad range of physical as well as chemical
properties.
• A rising trend towards the expansion of
Impedimetric biosensors is being presently
observed.
• The techniques of Impedimetric have been
executed to differentiate the invention of the
biosensors as well as to examine the catalyzed
responses of enzymes lectins, nucleic acids,
receptors, whole cells, and antibodies.
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 Optical Biosensor

The output transduced signal that is

measured is light for this type of biosensor.

Colorimetric for Photometric for

color light intensity

Photon output for a luminescent

Measure the change in light
or fluorescent process can be
adsorption as reactants are
detected with photomultiplier
converted to products.
tubes or photodiode systems.

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 Enzyme Biosensors
• An enzyme biosensor is an analytical device that combines an enzyme
with a transducer to produce a signal proportional to target analyte
concentration.
• Because of their specificity and catalytic (amplification) properties,
enzymes have found widespread use as sensing elements in biosensors.
• An enzymatic biosensor comprises of an enzyme, which recognizes and
then reacts with the target analyte producing a chemical signal, a
transducer, which produces a physical signal out of that chemical one,
and an electronic amplifier, which conditions and then amplifies the signal.

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An enzyme is a bio-catalyst and is almost always a protein that
help speed up metabolism, or the chemical reactions without being
changed.
• The enzyme is not destroyed during the reaction and is used over and over. 
• A cell contains thousands of different types of enzyme molecules, each
specific to a particular chemical reaction.
• Due to the action of enzymes, chemical reactions in organism can also be
carried out efficiently and specifically under mild conditions.

Most enzymes are three dimensional globular proteins (tertiary and

quaternary structure).

• A large protein enzyme molecule is composed of one or more amino

acid chains called polypeptide (polymer of amino acids) chains.
• The amino acid sequence determines the characteristic folding patterns of the
protein’s structure, which is essential to enzyme specificity.
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 Nomenclature
• Enzymes are generally named according to the reaction they catalyze or by
suffixing “ase” after the name of substrate.
• (as in urease, which catalyzes the breakdown of urea)
• Not all enzymes have been named in this manner, however, and to ease the
confusion surrounding enzyme nomenclature, a classification system has been
developed based on the type of reaction the enzyme catalyzes.
• There are six principal categories and their reactions:
1. Oxidoreductases: which are involved in electron transfer.
2. Transferases: which transfer a chemical group from one substance to another.
3. Hydrolases: which cleave the substrate by uptake of a water molecule
(hydrolysis).
4. Lyases: which form double bonds by adding or removing a chemical group.
5. Isomerases: which transfer a group within a molecule to form an isomer.
6. Ligases or synthetases: which couple the formation of various chemical bonds
to the breakdown of a pyrophosphate bond in adenosine triphosphate or a
similar nucleotide.
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 Enzyme react with the substrate to form
Mechanism of Enzyme Action an intermediate complex -a “transition
state” that requires less energy for the
• In most chemical reactions, an energy barrier exists reaction to proceed.

that must be overcome for the reaction to occur.

• This barrier prevents complex molecules such as
proteins and nucleic acids from spontaneously The unstable intermediate
degrading, and so is necessary for the preservation compound quickly breaks down to form
reaction products, and the unchanged
of life. enzyme is free to react with other
• When metabolic changes are required in a cell, substrate molecules.

however, certain of these complex molecules must

be broken down, and this energy barrier must be
surmounted.
• Heat could provide the additional needed energy
(called activation energy), but the rise in
temperature would kill the cell.
• The alternative is to lower the activation energy
level through the use of a catalyst.
• This is the role that enzymes play. 
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30
 The active site of the enzyme

• Only a certain region of the enzyme,

called the active site, binds to the
substrate.
• Enzymes bind substrates to their
active site and stabilize the transition
state of the reaction.
• The active site of the enzyme is the
place where the substrate binds and at
which catalysis occurs.
• The active site binds the substrate,
substrate, forming an enzyme-
substrate (ES) complex.

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 Glucose Sensors
• Glucose sensors are biosensors designed to detect glucose levels, which is vital
to managing diabetes. It is a good example of amperometric biosensors.
• Whether in the form of a test strip for a blood glucose meter or a sensor for a
continuous glucose monitor, the detection and measurement of glucose levels
are similar processes.
• For a glucose biosensor, the following components are used:
• Analyte: Glucose is the analyte that the biosensor is designed to detect.
• Bioreceptor: The test strip for a blood glucose test contains the enzyme that
interacts with the analyte in the drop of blood.
• Transducer: Most modern-day glucose meters and continuous glucose
monitors measure electrical signals, although earlier generations of glucose
meters used a colorimetric process (color change) that was measured
optically.
• Electronics and display: The processed signals are then quantified and
shown on either the glucose meter’s display or the receiver for a continuous
glucose monitor (or compatible app). 32
 Glucose Biosensors
• Home blood glucose detection sensor works on
the principle of electrochemical.
• The biosensor in this instrument relies upon
enzymes that recognize and catalyze reactions of
glucose with the generation of redox – active
species that are detected electrochemically.
• Glucose reacts with glucose oxidase to form
gluconic acid.
• Two electrons and two protons are also
produced.
• Glucose mediator reacts with surrounding
oxygen to form H2O2 and glucose oxidase.
• Now this glucose oxidase react with more
glucose.
• Higher the glucose content, the higher the
oxygen consumption.
• Glucose content can be detected by Pt-
electrode.
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 Glucometer
• Current glucometers use test strips containing glucose oxidase, an
enzyme that reacts to glucose in the blood droplet
• When the strip is inserted into the meter, the flux of the glucose
reaction generates an electrical signal
• This strip includes a trigger as well as a reference-type electrode
• Once a blood sample is poured on the strip, then a chemical
reaction takes place to generate an electrical current that is
directly proportional to the glucose concentration.
• The glucometer is calibrated so the number appearing in its digital
readout corresponds to the strength of the electrical current
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 Application of Enzyme Biosensors
• Enzyme biosensors has proven to be valuable technique for the
quantitative analysis of a target analytes in biomedicine,
environmental, food quality control, agricultural, and
pharmaceutical industry.
• Enzyme-based biosensors offer significant benefits, such as
miniaturization, real-time diagnosis capability, high sensitivity
and specificity, minimum sample preparation, high throughput,
bedside clinical testing, and portability.
• Likewise, estimations of glucose (enzyme-glucose oxidase),
urea (enzyme-urease), uric acid (enzyme-uricase), and
penicillin G (enzyme-P lactamase) can be done by these
biosensors.
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 Immunosensors
• Immunosensors are affinity ligand-based biosensing devices that
involve the coupling of immunochemical reactions to appropriate
transducers. 
• Immuno-biosensors or immunochemical bio­sensors work on the
principle of immunological specificity, coupled with measurement
(mostly) based on amperometric or potentiometric bio­sensors.
• Immunosensors use antibodies as the recognition element and
a transducer that converts the antibody–antigen binding event to a
measurable physical signal.
• Depending on the type of transducer there are four types of
immunosensor: electrochemical, optical, microgravimetric and
thermometric.
• The most commonly used bio-elements for the development of
electrochemical immunosensors are antibodies (Ab), followed by
aptamers (Apt) and, microRNA (miRNA). 36
Analyte: Antigen
• Antigen is a substrate that stimulates the
immune system to produce antibodies.

Bioreceptor: Antibody
• Antibodies are Y- shaped proteins formed
in response to any foreign
substance known as an antigen
• Sometimes aptamers (Apt) and, microRNA
(miRNA) can be used.

Transducer:
• Electrochemical, optical, microgravimetric
and thermometric
• Mostly amperometric or potentiometric bio­
sensors

Electronics and display: 

• The processed signals are then quantified
and shown on display
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 ELISA
• The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is an
immunological assay commonly used to
measure antibodies, antigens, proteins and glycoproteins in
biological samples.
• ELISA is used to detect and amplify an antigen-antibody reaction.
• ELISA assays are generally carried out in 96 well plates, allowing
multiple samples to be measured in a single experiment.
• These plates need to be special absorbant plates (e.g. NUNC
Immuno plates) to ensure the antibody or antigen sticks to the
surface.
• Each ELISA measures a specific antigen, and kits for a variety of
antigens are widely available.
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The 1st step is to coat the ELISA plate with capture antibody, any excess,
unbound antibody is then washed from the plate

• The capture antibody is an antibody raised against the antigen of

interest.

Next the sample (e.g. urine, serum, or cell supernatant) is added.

• Any antigen found in the sample will bind to the capture antibody
already coating the plate.
• Samples are usually added in duplicate or triplicate (to allow for
statistical analysis), and in varying concentrations to guarantee it falls
within the levels of detection of the assay.
• Again any excess sample is washed from the plate.

In step 3, detection antibody is added. This antibody is labelled with an

enzyme, usually horse radish peroxidase or alkaline phosphatase.

• Detection antibody binds to any target antigen already bound to the Figure : ELISA method.
plate.
Described a sandwich ELISA
• Finally, a substrate is added to the plate.

ELISA assays are usually chromogenic using a reaction that converts the

substrate (e.g. TMB or ABTS) into a coloured product which can be
measured  using a plate reader. 39
40
 Applications of Biosensors

• Biosensor devices include a biological

element as well as a physiochemical detector
and the main function of this device is to
detect analytes.
• So, the applications of biosensors are in a
wide range.
• These devices are applicable in the medical,
food industry, the marine sector as they offer
good sensitivity & stability as compared with
the usual techniques.
• In recent years, these sensors have become
very popular, and they are applicable in
different fields.
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 Applications of Biosensors
• Some examples of the fields that use biosensor technology include:
• General healthcare monitoring
• Medical Diagnosis
• Metabolites Measurement
• Screening for disease
• Clinical analysis and diagnosis of disease
• Drug development and improvement
• Veterinary and agricultural applications
• Industrial processing and monitoring
• Environmental pollution control
• Study & Interaction of Biomolecules
• Detection of Crime
• Quality Control
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 Common Applications of Biosensors

• Biosensors are used in the food industry to measure

carbohydrates, alcohols and acids, for example, during
quality control processes.
• The devices may also be used to check fermentation
during the production of beer, yoghurt and soft drinks.
• Another important application is their use in detecting
pathogens in fresh meat, poultry or fish.
• Biosensors are used to check the quality of air and water.
• The devices can be used to pick up traces of
organophosphates from pesticides or to check the toxicity
levels of wastewater
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 Conclusion
• A biosensor is universally defined as “a self-contained analytical
device that combines a biological component with a physicochemical
device for the detection of an analyte of biological importance”.
• It consists of a biological recognition element which is able to
specifically interact with a target molecule and a transducer able to
convert this interaction into a measurable signal.
• These instruments have a wide range of applications ranging from
clinical through to environmental and agricultural. The devices are
also used in the food industry.
• Biosensors can provide cost-effective, easy-to-use, sensitive and
highly accurate detection devices in a variety of research and
commercial applications.
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 REFERENCES

• C.B.Powar, 2010.Cell Biology.5th Ed,Himalyan Publishing House.

• Leshie Cromwell, Fred.J. Weibell and Erich.A.Pfeiffer. 2003. Biomedical
instrumentation and measurements. 2nd edition, PHI.
• John G. Webster 1998. Medical Instrumentation: Applications and Design, 3 rd
edition, Jon Wiley and Sons, New York.
• Jeremy M. Berg, John L. Tymoczko and Lubert Stryer. 2006. “Biochemistry,” 6th
Ed. W.H. Freeman and Co. Ltd.
• Robert Weaver. 2012 “Molecular Biology,” 5th Edition, MCGraw-Hill.
• Jon Cooper, , 2004. “Biosensors A Practical Approach” Bellwether Books.
• Martin Alexander, 1994 “Biodegradation and Bioremediation,” Academic Press.

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THANK YOU

For queries
Email: devinder.e11172@cumail.in