ECOLOGY

COURSE CODE: STB 222

5 Credit Unit

FOR
NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN SCIENCE LABORATORY
TECHNOLOGY

YEAR 2 – SEMESTER 1
DEPARTMENT OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES
TARABA STATE POLYTECHNIC SUNTAI
Course lecturer:
WANMI, Danjuma Abner
2019/2020 Academic Session
 Ecology
What Is Ecology
• Ecology is the study of the relationships of living organisms to each other and their
surroundings.
Habitat
• The place where an organism lives, it its habitat. It is a place that is suitable to its way of
life.
Kinds Of Habitat
The main types of habitats are;
• Fresh water, e.g. pond, streams and rivers
• Salt water (marine), e.g. oceans and seas
• Terrestrial habitats, e.g, farmland, savanna, rainforest and deserts
• Arboreal habitats, e.g. tree trunks, tree tops and air
Vegetation Zones Of Nigeria And Africa
The local biomes in Nigeria can be divided into:
• Forest and
• Savanna
Diagnostic Features Of Nigeria’s Biomes

– Mangrove Swamps: These are found in the tropics, along

coastal regions and river months. In Nigeria, mangrove
swamps are found in the delta regions of Lagos, Delta, Edo,
Rivers, Ondo and Cross Rivers States.
– Tropical Rainforest: These occur in regions that lie between
the equator and latitude 5 – 10 N and S.
o

– Savanna: Tropical grasslands are often called savanna. The

savanna is usually flat for miles at a stretch.
• Southern Guinea Savanna
• Northern Guinea Savanna
• Sudan Savanna
• Sahel Savanna
• Ecological Niche
– An organism is usually confined to a particular part of a habitat,
e.g. caterpillars and an aphid, which live on the same plant
occupy different positions or ecological niches on the plant.
• Environment
• The environment of an organism consists of all the factors
in its surroundings that affect it. Such factors include the:
– Place where the organism lives and physical conditions of the
place like light intensity, temperature, humidity e.t.c.
– Food, water and air that it takes in for its activities
– Animals that prey on it, and
– Diseases that affect it
• Measurement Of Ecological Factors
– Ecological factors that require measurement
1. Instrument Functions/uses
2. Rain gauge Measuring the amount of rainfall
3. Thermometer Measurement the lowest and highest temperature of the day
4. Anemometer Measuring the speed of wind
5. Wind vane Indicate the direction of wind
6. Hygrometer Measures relative humidity
7. Barometer Measures pressure
8. Photometer or light meter Measures light intensity on land
9. Hydrophotometer Measures light intensity in water
10. Colorimeter or pH indictor Measures acidity or alkalinity of soil or solution
11. Tullgren funnel Compares the numbers and types of animals in difference soil
12. Baermann funnel For collecting tiny organisms that live in soil water
13. Sacchi disc Measures the turbidity or transparency of water
14. Tape Measures height and length of objects
15. Thermograph For long period recording of temperature and relative humidity
16. Meter rule Measures the length of objects
17. Water speed meter Measures speed of water flow
18. Slope gauge Measures slope of an area of land
• Succession
– A gradual or progressive series of changes occurring in the structure,
composition, variety or diversity and number of species in an area till a
stable or climax community is established.
• The main characteristics of succession include;
– Succession occurs in newly formed habitat,
– Increase in number organisms
– Succession is orderly and progressive
– Competition among organisms
– Diversity of organisms
– Plants form the pineer organisms
– Changes in species composition
– Changes in habitat
• Outcome Of Succession
• Types Of Succession
 Outcome Of Succession

Succession results to:

– Replacement by complex organisms
– Changes in the physical environment
– Fast replacement
– Attainment of equilibrium point
– Climax community form the final stage
 Types Of Succession
• Primary Succession: Starts on bare surfaces which have
not previously borne vegetation. It usually starts with
lower organisms and takes a longer time to reach a
climax community. Examples of primary succession are
commonly found in ponds, vegetation on rocks,
mangrove forest an estuary.
• Secondary Succession: Starts on already colonized
surface. It may start with fairly complex organisms and it
takes a shorter time to reach a climax community. Typical
examples are found in abandoned farm and grasslands.
Major Communities In A Plant Succession
• The three major communities in a plant succession are:
– Pioneers (early colonizers): Usually small, lower plants, and highly drought
resistant organisms. They require minimum space, substratum or nutrients.
They are highly adapted to growing on bare surfaces e.g lichens, algae,
mosses and liverworts.
– Developmental, intermediate or transitory communities: include series of
communities which follow the pioneers with each succeeding communities
more complex than the one it replaced. They have more diverse species
with greater number of individuals. Include: herbivours plants such as
Talinum, Azeratum, imperata cylindrical, cyanotus and sida acuta.
– Climax community: Refers to the terminal plant succession or stable
community which establishes equilibrium with ecological condition within
the locality. They are the most complex in the series of communities in
succession with greatest species diversity, as
 Process of succession in abandoned farm
land
• Nutrients remain from the destruction of the old farm
• Initial pioneers are insectieggs, larvae, worms, seeds of plants and
underground stems
• Second stage of succession involve the germination and growth of more
• grasses, the hatching of eggs of insects and other species.
• Vegetation is now able to support more animals e.g. rats, other rodents, snakes
and reptiles
• In the third stage, the herbs are replaced by shrubs and increases in the
diversity of species
• In the fourth stage, more trees grow and species diversity include birds, snake,
• reptiles and monkeys, which live in different strata of the habitat.
• Population and activities of detritus feeders increased
• Climax vegetation is reached
• Animal community will now include: herbivores, carnivores and detritus
feeders which are involved in a complex food web.
• Problems Of Organisms In Their Habitat
• An organism environment, typically the
conditions in which it lives, may be sub
divided into physical (abiotic) and biotic
environment. Both drastically affect the
distribution or organisms in different habitats
 Abiotic factors confronting organisms in
their habitat
• Temperature: The narrowness of the temperature range over which biochemical
processes can function efficiently implies that organism, wherever they live, must
have the necessary physiological or behavioral adaptations to combat the extremes
of environmental temperatures.
• Water: The extent to which an organism is dependent on an abundant water supply
depends on its requirements and its ability to conserve it in adverse conditions.
Organisms living in dry habitats generally have good water conservation
• Light: This is essential for all green plants and photosynthetic bacteria, and for all
the animals dependent on plants. Plants have numerous adaptations for obtaining
optimum illumination.
• Humidity: It is important because it can affect the rate at which water evaporates
from the surface of an organism, which in turn influences its ability to withstand
drought.
• Wind and Air currents: It is applicable to plants. Only plants with strong root
systems and tough stems can live in exposed places where winds are fierce.
Biotic factors confronting organisms in their
habitat
• An organism biotic environment is made up of all the other
organisms with which it comes into regular contact. Below
are some examples;
– Predation: An organism may feed on, or be fed on by, other
organism. In such case the distribution of feeder and fed are
related. Thus herbivores are only found where there is suitable
plant food; carnivores plants where there are suitable insects
predators where there is suitable prey.
– Competition: Organisms Frequently Complete with one another
for such commodities as food, light, water, shelter, mate or resting
site. Competition has resulted in all manner of adaptations.
– An organisms may use another as a habitat. Typical example is
seen in parasitism
 Adaptive Features Of Some Plants In Fresh
Water Habitat
• Water lity (Nymphaea): The plant has air bladder, expanded shape and
light weight which keep it afloat. It has long petioles attached at the
centre of leaf blade which prevent them from being drawn under water
by the current.
• Water hycinsh (Ipomea gtassipis): They have cavities and intercellular air
spaces which give them the ability ot float or maintain buoyancy on
water.
• Spirogyra: The plant has mucilaginous cover which protect them in water
• Water lettuce (pistia): Has hairs on their leaves which help them to trap
air and enable them float.
• Hornwort (eratophyllum): Have submerged on this dissected leaves
which increase their surface area to sunlight and gaseous exchange.
• Water weed (Elodea): The plant has a long and flexible submerged
petiole which enables it to swing with water currents.
 Adaptive features of some animals in fresh
water habitat
• (1) Protozoa: These animals posses contractile vacuoles which
enable them to carry out osmoregulation in water
• (2) Tilapia fish: Have swim bladders which enable them to float
(buoyancy) in water. They also have gills for respiration
• (3) Duck: Has webbed digit on its feet for easy locomotion and
serrated beak for sieving food in water into its mouth
• (4) Lung fish (protopterus): The animals obtain oxygen through
the gills but when the water dried out during the dry season,
they dig into the mud and breathe with lungs until the rain
comes again.
• (5) Water boatman: This animal can carry bubbles of air with it
as it goes below the water surface to the bottom and use these
as their air supply (respiration) underwater.
Adaptive features of some plant species in
estinarine (brackish water) habitats
• (i) Planktons (diatoms): Have air spaces in their tissues, rhizoids or false feet
for
• attachment to rock shores and air bladder for buoyancy.
• (ii) Algae: Have chlorophyll for photosynthetic activities and small size or large
• surface area for floating
• (iii) Red mangfrove (Rhizophora racemosa): Has silt roots which grow down
from the stem in the soft mud and develop numerous rooflets which have air
spaces for conducting air to the tissues of the roots. The roots also provide
support and prevent plants from being washed away by the tides. Seeds also
germinate while still on the parent plant thus preventing seedling from being
carried away by water current.
• (iv) White mangrove (Avicennia nitida): It has pneumatophores or breathing
roots for exchange of gases.
Adaptive features of some animals species in
estuarine (brackish) habitat
• (1) Mosquito larvae and pupae: Posses breathing trumpets for gaseous
exchange
• (2) Crabs: Can burrow fast into the mud against predators, strong waves
or tides
• (3) Water snails and shrimps: Can burrow into the mud when the tide is
going out,
• thus escaping the periodic dilution of its external medium
• (4) Worms: Have strong protective and impermeable covering against
high salinity
• (5) Fishes: Like tilapia have fins for movement and swim bladder of
buoyancy
• (6) Mud skippers: Fins adapted for crawling when on ;land and for
swimming when
• in water
 Population Studies
• Definition: Population is defined as the total number of
organisms of the same species living together in a given area at
a particular time.

• In population studies of a habitat, the following are usually

studied:
– Types of organisms: It helps to determine the relationships that exist
between the various organisms
– Population characteristics: These characteristics include:
• Population size
• Population density
• Population frequency
• Percentage cover
• Population growth rate
 Factors Affecting Population
• Factors which may affect the population of
organisms in a given habitat include:
– Natality (birth rate):
– Mortality (death rate)
– Immigration (dispersal)
– Emigration
– Availability of food
– Seasonal Climatic Changes
– Breeding periods
– Natural Disasters
 Method of Population Study
Population Studies by Sampling Method
• Population studies can easily be carried out in a
habitat especially in terrestrial habitat by sampling
method, using an instrument called the quadrat.
• A quadrat is made of a square or rectangular wire,
plastic, wooden or metal frame with predetermined
area.
• For example, the area of a quadrat may be 1.5m2.
 How to Conduct Population Studies
• The population size or total population and population density of a
particular species in a terrestrial habitat can be estimated by the following
procedure:
i. Choose and locate the sample plot;
ii. Then identify the species in the plot;
iii. Measure the area with a measuring tape to know the area of the habitat;
iv. Throw or toss the quadrat randomly at intervals for up to 10 or above
times.
v. After each throw or toss, the number of species within the area of
quadrat is recoded;
vi. The density of species is calculated by dividing the average number of
times the species occurs within the quadrat by the area of the quadrat.
• The calculation can be worked out this way
a. Frequency of species = X
b. Number of toss = Y/10
c. Average number of species per quadrat = X = Z
 Ecological Factors
Meaning: Ecological factors are those factors in the environment which can influence
• living organisms or cause changes in any habitat, be it aquatic or terrestrial habitat.
• Ecological factors are grouped into two categories Biotic and Abiotic factors.
Biotic Factors
• The biotic factors are made up of the effects of other plants and animals on a given organisms. Examples of biotic factor are:
• Competitions: Competition involves the interactions among two organisms of the same species or different species in which
one neither outgrows the other nor survives while the other cannot grow nor survive.
• Parasitism: This is a close association between two organisms in which one called the parasite lives in or on,and feeds at the
expense of the other organisms called the host.
• Commensalism: Commensalism neither is an association between two organisms living together in which only one (the
commensal) benefitted nor is harmed.
• Predation: Predation is a type of association between two organisms in which the predator kills the other called the prey and
feeds directly on it.
• Pathogens: These are micro‐organisms which can cause diseases in plants and animals leading to their reduction through
death.
• Mortality: Mortality is the death rate of organisms (plants or animals) in an environment. Mortality generally reduces the
population of organisms in any habitat.
• Migration: This is the movement of organisms either into a new habitat (immigration) or out of a habitat (emigration).
• Dispersal: Dispersal is the spreading of new individuals from their parents to new habitat so as to start a new life in the new
environment.
• Natality: This is the rate of giving birth to new offspring. Natality is generally known to increase the population of the habitat
which will subsequently lead to certain problems among the organisms in that habitat.
• Food: Availability of food in a habitat generally leads to increase in population while lack of food leads to starvation and
dearth.
• Diseases: Diseases are known to reduce the population of organisms (both plants and animals) in any habitat.
• Pest: Pest are also known to affect the performance of plants in terms of yield and growth, in severe cases, the plants may
even die.
 Abiotic Factors

• The abiotic factors comprise the following;

• Climatic factors: These are temperature, rainfall, wind,
pressure, sunlight or sunshine, humidity e.t.c.
• Chemical factors: These are made up of oxygen
carbon dioxide, mineral salts, water and nitrogen.
• Edaphic factors: These consist of soil, its water,
chemical and physical composition, its pH, its nutrient,
profile, structure and texture.
• Topographic factors: These are caused as a result of
the shape of the earth’s surface, e/g. effects of rivers,
hills, mountains and valleys.
Ecological Factors common to all Habitat.

• Factors affecting or common to all habitats (both

aquatic and terrestrial habitats) include:
– Temperature
– Rainfall
– Light
– Wind
– Pressure
– Hydrogen ion concentration (pH).
– Of these factors, Salinity, Turbidity/Transparency, Dissolved
Gases, Density, water Current, Total movement and waves.
 Soil as an Ecosystem
Soil profile
• The structural base of the entire community is the soil. It supplies the fundamental
reserviour in terms of nutrients and water.
• It is both an aquifer and basic food bank.
• The soil itself is composed of strata or layers called horizons, each with definable
properties.
• The upper layer, or horizon A, commonly called the top soil, consists of the living
roots of vascular plants, the mycelia of fungi, a great abundance of bacteria,
protozoa, algae, and other microorganisms, and a surprising variety of burrowing
animals
• The second major stratum of soil, horizon B otherwise called sub-soil, consists of a
mixture of the underlying parent materials and inorganic compound, which have
filtered downward from the processes of decomposition in horizon A.
• The third major layer of soil, horizon C, otherwise called the bedrock, consists of
basic parent materials or the substrate. It may be of sedimentary origin resulting
from water deposition (alluvial), glacial activity (glacial tilt) or wind deposition
(Aeolian), or it may also be igneous, metamorphic or volcanic in origin.
 Components of Soil
• A soil consists of four main parts arranged in
decreasing order of quantity as follows:
– Mineral or rock materials;
– Organic matter from plant and animal residues;
– Water;
– Air
 Plant Nutrients
These are elements that are essential for normal activities of plants
and cannot be replaced by other elements. They are two types:
a. Major (Macro) Nutrients
• These are elements that are required in large quantities for the
normal functioning of plants. They are carbon (C), nitrogen (N),
oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulfur
(S), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg).
b. Trace (Micro) Nutrients
• These are those elements that are required in trace quantities for
proper growth and development of plants. They are boron (B),
copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co),
manganese (Mn), sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl). Deficiency of any
of the above nutrients in plants produces some deficiency signs
or symptoms.
Symptoms of Nutrient Deficiency in Plants
Nutrient Deficiency symptoms
1. Nitrogen Yellowing of lower leaves, few branches, few leaves
dropping of leaves.
2. Phosphorus Purples leaf colour
3. Potassium Scorching and browning of leaves
4. Calcium Dying back of the tips of leaves
5. Sulphur Yellowing of both upper and lower leaves
6. Iron Yellowing of upper (young) leaves
7. Zinc Bleaching effect, young leaves almost white
8. Manganese Vein-banding in young leaves (yellowing between veins)
9. Boron White irregular spots between the veins
10.Molybdenum Upper leaves wilt and die along the margins
 Relationship Between Soil Types and Water
Holding Effects of Soil on Vegetation
• Soil is define as the uppermost layer of the earth crust which provides support
and nutrients for plant growth, and a habitat for some animals
• Sandy soil:A soil is said to be sandy if the proportion of sand particles in a
sample of soil is very high. The particles are mainly quartz (SiO2) and having a
size of 0.02mm to 2.0mm in diameter.
Effects on Vegetation: sandy soil is low in plant nutrients as a result of high level of
leaching; hence it supports scanty vegetation or grassland.
• Clay soil: A soil is said to be clayey if the proportion of clay in a sample of soil is
very high. The relative size of a clay particle less than 0.002mm in diameter. It is
a heavy soil because it is difficult to work or cultivate.
Effect on Vegetation: Clay soil has little ability to retain plant nutrients, hence it can support
light vegetation such as the forest and some luxuriant vegetation such as savanna or shrub.
• Loamy soil: as a mixture of sand and clay particles with high proportion of
organic matter. Loamy soil is more fertile than either clay or sandy soil.
Effect on Vegetation: Contains plant nutrients. It is the best soil in which plants can grow.
Loamy soil supports luxuriant vegetation such as forest.
• Water holding capacity of soils is the ability of
soil to retain water.
Factors that affect water holding capacity of
soil as include the following:
i. Organic matter content
ii. Size of soil particle
iii. Soil texture
iv. Clay content
v. Mineral salt/pH
 Erosion
• Definition of Erosion
• Factors Effecting Wind Erosion
– Speed
– Topography
– Soil minerals
Control Of Wind Erosion
 shelter belts
 Strip Cropping
 Cover Cropping
 Straw Planting
 Mulches
 Synthetic Stabilisers
 Claying And Marling
 Cultivations
 POLLUTION
• Definition: Pollution is defined as the release of toxic
or harmful substances into the environment by their
natural forces or man and other animals to an extent
that causes biological damage to man and his
resources.
• Type of Pollution
– a. Air pollution
– b. Noise pollution
– c. Land pollution
– d. Water pollution
 Air pollution
• The major air pollutants: Carbon monoxide,
Sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen oxide, Smoke, Dust
particles, Radio-active rays
• Control air pollution
– Conditions must be carried for complete combustion of
fuel in internal combustion engine.
– Chemical waste should be discharged into the air
through fumes chambers.
– Industries should be sited far away from residential
areas,
 Noise pollution
• Pollutant: Noise
• Sources
– Factory or industrial noise
– Aeroplance or aviation noise
– Railway engine or locomotive noise,
– Car horns and sirens
– High pitched musical sound from loud speakers or drumming
– Noise from heavy guns

• Effects of noise pollution

– Causes loss of hearing or deafness
– Noise can cause emotional disorder, anxiety or lack of concentration.
– Noise can also cause high blood pressure or hypertension
• Control
– There should be reduction of noise from loud speakers and cars sirens.
– Legislation should be made against the use of loud speakers in public places.
– Ban on the use of heavy guns must be placed
 Land Pollution
• Major land pollutants: Refuse, Sewage, Metal
scraps, Pesticides, fertilizer, Glass particles,
Crude oil
• Control of Land Pollution
– Refuse should be burnt in incinerators.
– Urban wastes should be properly burnt or buried
– Sewages should be properly treated before
disposal
 Water Pollution
• The major water pollutants: sewage,
Pesticides, fertilizers, Chemical wastes,
excreta, Crude oil.
• Control Water Pollution
– There should be efficient and proper sewage
disposal system
– Dumping of refuse or petro-chemical by-products
into rivers, streams
– Industrial effluents should be recycled
 Sewage
• Sewage is society water-borne waste
– Domestic sewage contains human faeces and urine, the water used to wash these
away and the dirty water that flows from our baths and sinks.
– Industrial sewage: includes the dirty water from industry, hospitals and abattoirs.
– Agricultural sewage: Derived from farms, is not allowed to mix with domestic and
Industrial waste, and is treated separately.
• Eutrophication: Eutrophication is the enrichment of water with nutrient
when large amounts of organic matter, or nitrogen and phosphorus, enter
the water. A chain reaction then occurs, as a result of which the oxygen
level of the water falls and many organisms die.
The degree of eutrophication in a body of water can be determined by measuring
the rate at which a sample of the water takes up oxygen in the dark. This is known
as the biological oxygen demand (BOD).
The higher the BOD, the greater the number of aerobic microorganisms in the
water and the greater the degree of eutrophication.
• Treatment Sewage
– biological filter system
– activated sluge system
 Toxic actions of Chemical Substances
• Toxicity is the ability of a material to injure a living
organism by other than mechanical means.
• Mode of Entry
– Ingestion
– skin absorption
– Inhalation
MODE OF ACTION
– The action taken by the material on the body and / or the
action taken by the body
– because of contact with the material can range from nil to a
complex network of interrelated activities.
 ACTION AT THE SITE OF CONTACT
• All irritants have an action (irritation) at the site
of contact.
• In many cases that action is severe enough and
rapid enough to warn of a contact that may be
dangerous if the warning is neglected.
• On the other hand, fibrogenic dusts that are not
irritating in the usual sense of the word and
some other materials also act at the site of
contact.
 ABSORPTION INTO BLOOD
• Whether or not there is any action on the skin,
lungs, or stomach, the material may be
absorbed into the bloodstream from the site
of contact.
• This never happens with perfect efficiency
and, therefore, some sort of a distribution
coefficient may be determined it enough is
known about the absorption process.
 ACTION ON BLOOD
• Under most circumstances, the blood simply
transports material that has been absorbed.
• Some substances, however, have an action on the
blood itself as exemplified by carbon monoxide and
aromatic amines.
• These materials act on hemoglobin to reduce the
ability of that protein to carry oxygen from the lungs
to other tissues.
• Direct action on the blood other than interference
with hemoglobin is very unusual except for some
living disease entities.
 ABSORPTION INTO TISSUE
• For any other tissue in the body, a second
distribution coefficient usually can be calculated
to present absorption from the blood.
• As with the more external coefficient, care must
be taken in the use of an internal coefficient
that may be modified by
– Exercise
– nutritional state
– temperature, and so forth
 SITE OF ACTION
• Usually one organ or one organ system will be
more sensitive to the material or may absorb
more of the material than any other effects.
• The major site of action may be the kidneys,
liver, heart, brain, or even a small portion of
one of these organs such as the glomerulus’s
in the kidney.
 TOXIN ACTION
• Toxicity is a property of matter,
• It is a biological property, implying that the
variability of response will be much greater
than that found in physical systems
• toxicity is that it may differ from individual in
addition to differing from species to species
 INDUSTRIAL TOXICOLOGY
• Industrial toxicologists are concerned with the effects of industrially
encountered materials on man.
• The toxicologists commonly experiment on animals but usually are
interested in the results
• Industrial toxicologists usually confine their efforts to the effects of
materials and leave the effects of energies such as sound and radiation
to others who specialize in those fields.
• The industrial toxicologist may not be employed by industrial but may
work in a government laboratory, at a university, or for a consulting
firm.
• His interests. Not his place of employment, determine his profession.
• The toxicologist will need or will determine the following information:
– General chemical and physical properties of the material
– Procedures for detecting and determining the toxic agent
– The mode of action of the toxic material
– The dose-response relationships
 DOSE RESPONSE

• No two biologic entities, even within the same species, react

exactly alike to an insult from a toxic chemical agent.
• This variability or response is even greater between species
than it is within a given species.
• To enable a comparison of the toxicity of materials over long
time spans, the toxicologist may use standardize strains or
varieties of his experimental subjects.
• When he doses a laboratory rat today with a material, the
results will be similar to those observes when that same
material was given to rats of the same inbred, genetically
stable strain 2 decades ago (4).
Thank you for
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