KHALID INSTITUTE OF

MEDICAL SCIENCES
HUMAN NUTRITION AND
DIETETICS
F U N D A M E N TA L S O F H U M A N
NUTRITION
HND-301
B Y D R . H A D I A TA H I R ( S E N I O R
LECTURER, ACTING HOD)
CARBOHYDRATES
• Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are widely distributed in plants in
which they form carbon dioxide of the of the atmosphere and water from the soil through
photosynthesis
• Major groups of carbohydrates are:
1. Sugar (Monosaccharides and disaccharides)
2. Oligosaccharides
3. Polysaccharides ( Starch, Cellulose, pectic substances and related compounds)

• Carbohydrates constitute by far the greatest portion of diet in developing countries, 80% in
some cases. In industrial 45-50% of carbs are present in diet of a person
SUGAR

• Sugar are white, crystalline, water soluble and varyingly sweet in taste.
• It is modified by heating/cooking
• Act as preservatives in jams because of their water binding capacity
• When oxidized in human body it provides energy (3.75 kcal/g or 16kJ)
• Sugars are building blocks of such complex carbohydrates as starch, cellulose, pectin etc.
• Sugar that are naturally present are intrinsic and is of no harm, those who are refined and
concentrated are extrinsic and are harmful, causing dental caries, obesity etc.
TYPES OF SUGAR
MONOSACCHARIDES
Monosaccharides are simple sugar with common formula C6 H12 O6. Its three types are
• Glucose
• Fructose
• Galactose
These pass through digestive system without being changed

DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides contain two monosaccharides combined together with just elimination of one water
molecule. The formula is C12 H22 O11.There types are
• Sucrose
• Maltose
• Lactose
This converts into monosaccharides before alimentary tract can absorb them
MONOSACCHARIDES
GLUCOSE

• Also known as Dextrose

• It is naturally present in fruits to 2-6% and honey 25-37%
• It is the main form of sugar present in the body
• In human being about 80-100mg glucose per 100ml blood is present
• It is present in the form of starch in plants and in animals its present in the form of glycogen
• During digestion starch converts into glycogen. It is mainly done by hydrolysis of starch
FRUCTOSE
• Fructose also known as levulose or fruit sugar
• It is naturally present in fruits 2-5%, in vegetables especially in honey for about 25-45%
• An apple contain 6% fructose, 4% sucrose and 1% glucose
• A grape contain 8% fructose, 2% sucrose, 7% glucose and 2% maltose
• Fructose is the sweetest among all other mono or disaccharides
• It is a great source of energy for diabetic patients as compared to glucose
GALACTOSE
It is not present in free state ,it is usually widely distributed. It forms parts of lactose, present in
brain and nervous system
DISACCHARIDES
SUCROSE
• Sucrose is the common household sugar. It is naturally present in sugar cane (10-20%), sugar
beet (12-18), honey (0.5-3.0). It is present in fruits and some roots in less quantity.
• Its formed through condensation of one molecule of each glucose and fructose.
• It is available in pure form and in low cost
MALTOSE
• Maltose consists of two glucose unit. It is mostly found in honey (2-12%)
• It formed during breakdown of starch by digestion during grain germination, during break
making
• It is commercially produced through acid and enzyme hydrolysis
LACTOSE
• Lactose occur in milk of all mammals
• It is combination of each glucose and galactose
• Human milk contain 7.5% lactose, animal milk contain 4.9% lactose
• It is degraded by enzyme lactase in intestine
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
• Oligosaccharides are glycosides, that is few condensed monosaccharides
• It is most commonly found in food in a form of malto-oligosaccharide (homopolymers of D-
glucose) and as stachyose, fructo-oligosaccharides (heteropolymers of D-fructose or D-galactose)
• It occurs as fructo-oligosaccharides in onion and garlic, galacto-oligosaccharides or soybean-
oligosaccharides in form of stachyose and raffinose in soybean.
• The physiological function of oligosaccharides are short chain polysaccharides that meet two
main requirements
a. They are not digested by human gastric juice
b. It is consumed by beneficial intestinal bacteria, Bifidobacteria in colon
• It is a popular function food. Most common products are beverages, infant milk formula, bakery
product, yogurt and dairy desserts
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS
• Helps in proliferation of bifidobacterial that reduce the number of detrimental bacteria
pathogenic organisms
• Reduce toxic metabolites and deleterious enzymes and increase the production of useful
nutrients
• Prevent constipation and protect liver function
• Reduce serum cholesterol level and blood pressure
• Have an anticancer effect

Bifidobacteria produce short chain fatty acid, mainly acetic and lactic acid. They suppress the
activity of pathogenic bacteria and reduce formation of toxic fermentation products.
Bifidobacteria produce some vitamin of the B-Group
POLYSACCHARIDES
STARCH
• Starch is a polysaccharide, non-crystalline, white, tasteless powder
• It is a homoglycan and it consists of glucose units (4000-15,000) condensed to form both straight
(amylose) and branched chains (amylopectin).
• In amylose glucose are linked together by linkage chain
• Starch provides major source of energy. It naturally present in plants.
• Cereal grains, potatoes are excellent source
• It is present in the form of granules in plants
• When these granules are heated the structure is ruptured to bring the starch out
• It is insoluble in water because of which granules swell up while cooking. This makes starch more
digestible
• It is stored as glycogen or into fat which increase risk of diseases like obesity and coronary heart
disease
GLYCOGEN
• Glycogen has similar composition to starch. It is made from 3,000 to 60,000 glucose units, mostly
present in chain in animals not in plants
• Its small amount is stored in liver (3-7%) and muscles (0.5-1.0%).
• It again breaks down into glucose when an animal dies

Cellulose and related compounds

• Cellulose consists of thousands of glucose units joined together.
• Its main structural component of plant cell wall and is insoluble water
• Animals cannot digest cellulose
• Good source are fruits, vegetables, whole cereal and legumes
• It is used as thickening and bulk agent
• Cellulose possess several physiological effects depending upon physical and chemical properties
of the individual fiber source. They add bulk to feces because of water binding capacity.
• Decrease nutrient availability reduce levels of plasma cholesterol and reduce glycemic response
to a meal

Pectin
• Pectins is present in many fruits and roots
• They are composed of rhamnogalacturonans and contain other carbohydrate as side chains
• Water soluble pectins are found in parts of plant cell walls and middle lamella
• Pectin forms a stiff gel in the presence of sucrose and citric acid thats why its important in jelly
making
• Pectins are not digested by man but assist in the passage of digestible materials and wastes
through intestines.
GUMS AND MUCILAGES
• There are numerous gums found in plants and cereal grains
• Polysaccharides containing several sugars with alternating monomer structure
• They do not change when passed through digestive system

Agar
• Agar also called agar agar, macassar gum. It is dried and purified stems of seaweed
• Agar is a galactose, but its not digested by the digestive system
• It is partly soluble or it swells up in water to form gel
• Used in soup, jellies, ice-cream, meat as a stabilizer
• It assists in the digestible material and waste
DIETARY FIBER
• Dietary fiber is also known as bulk, roughage, bran. It includes endogenous components of
plant materials in the diet that are resistant to digestive enzymes in the stomach.
• Pectins, gums constitute the water soluble fraction of the dietary fiber. These form of gel in the
intestinal tract and slow the passage of food.
• They delay gastric emptying time
• Decrease glucose absorption
• Reduce cholesterol
• It is beneficial for the diabetic and hypertension patients
• The water- insoluble faction of the dietary fraction consists of cellulose, lignins
• This fraction absorbs large amount of water while passing through digestive system
• It increases fecal bulk
• It delays glucose absorption hence its also beneficial for diabetic patients
• Fiber plays role in handling in inflammation of intestine, appendicitis, haemorrides, cancer of
colon, lowering cholesterol
• In diabetic patients fiber control blood glucose level, delay glucose absorption, reduce insulin
requirement, lower level of urinary glucose
• Excessive intake of dietary fiber is recommended for diabetic patients but take too much fiber
can also harm. It effects on the bioavailability of mineral elements if they are high in oxalic
acid or phytic acid.
• Inorganic like calcium, iron excrete as salts
• It is suggested that the average intake of fiber should be 20g/day
ENERGY
• Energy is obtained by oxidation of carbohydrates, oil, fats and proteins contained in the diet as
well as from chemical reactions in the body.
• Calories (Cal) or kilocalories (kcal) is the unit of measurement of energy.
• Joule (J) or kilojoule (kJ) is the equivalent international (S.I) unit.
• Calorie (Cal or kcal) is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
kilogram of water by 1C
• About half of the daily intake of energy is obtained by oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and
protein in the diet
1. Liberation of energy from glucose and fatty acids reaction
2. Synthesis of new proteins for growth and repair
3. Elimination of wastes from blood by kidney
4. Maintenance of body temperature at 37 C
5. Maintenance of electrolyte concentration in the cells
6. Contraction of muscles in breathing
7. Contraction of heart muscles
• Rest half of the energy is used for muscular activity during the day and for special purpose
such as growth, pregnancy and lactation.
• Diet too high or low in energy yielding nutrients is harmless
• Excess energy is stored as fat or glycogen in the body
• During periods of starvation, body proteins are utilized to provide energy
ENERGY EXPENDITURE
• Human body requires energy for the performance of all functions.
• It is needed for
1. Maintenance of body temperature
2. Continuous activates of the heart, lung, kidney
3. It helps in breakdown, repair and building of tissues
• The rate at which all these functions are happening while the body is at rest is termed as Basal
Metabolic Rate (BMR)
• BMR varies with age, weight, sex, disease and other factors
• It is related to muscle mass and surface area of the body from which heat is lost
• Children have a higher BMR (53 kcal or 220 kJ for one year old infant) than adults (34 kcal or
140 kJ for 70 years old man) per m2. BMR decreases approximately 1 per cent per year after
25 years of age. This decline is a major reason why losing weight becomes more of a struggle
and gaining weight seems to be easy
• The BMR raises with an increase in weight. In the females, due to the presence of more fatty
tissues, BMR is slightly lower than in males
• In adult male the BMR is about 1700 kcal (7MJ), while in a female it is 1500 kcal (6.3 MJ).
• The BMR in diseased condition is often higher. E.g. during fever, it is increases by about 10%
for every degree centigrade rise in body temperature
ENERGY NEEDS
1. BODY WEIGHT
Obese persons use less energy at rest. During activity, use of energy is proportional to body weight
2. AGE
Children and adolescents require more energy in proportion to their weight than adults do. Elderly
generally use less energy than young and adults since the activity and number of active cells reduce with
increasing age
3. PREGNANCY AND LACTATION
Extra energy is required by women during pregnancy and breast feeding to fulfill the needs of the growing
baby. Extra 200 kcal is recommended daily in the last 6 months of pregnancy. Extra 500 kcal when breast
feeding
4. CLIMATE
Human beings maintain their body temperature at or around 37 C. This is the best suited for the activity of
enzymes. In hot climates less heat needs to be generated to maintain body temperature as compared to cool
temperature
5. ACTIVITY
More energy is required during muscular activity than when body is at rest
SWEETENERS
• Every sweetener have specific application and limitation
• Every sweetener is not appropriate to the requirement of every individual
• It is used to satisfy taste, flavor, texture and energy need
• There are two types of sweetener Bulk and Alternate sweetener

BULK SWEETENER
• It provides huge amount of energy 3.75 kcals
• It is a sweetening agent
• Satisfy sweet cravings in human being
• Used as reducing sour taste and increasing acidic taste in some food e.g. tomato
• Used for preservation e.g. in jams
• Used as food for yeast and other fermentation microorganisms
• Lower freezing point of liquids
ALTERNATE SWEETENERS
Alternate sweeteners do not provide any kind of calories or energy that is why it is recommended
for calorie restricted people
DIETARY REQUIREMENTS
• Carbohydrates should provide 55% of energy at least. It should be taken from different sources.
If you are taking more carbs than required you should have regular physical activity. Excessive
amount should be avoided
• Bulk carbs containing food should be rich in dietary fiber. Cereal, vegetable, legumes and fruits
are good source. About 15-20g dietary fiber is required as safe level.
ENERGY AND CARBOHYDRATES
CONTENTS OF FOODS