Fire Protection and Arson

Investigation
midterm
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL FIREFIGHTING

Fire fighting is, has been, and always will be one of the main objectives of fire
protection. A well-mannered, well-equipped, and well-trained fire department
provides a solid based upon which effective firefighting depends.
STRUCTURAL FIRE FIGHTING:
1. Initial Procedure:
a. Sounding the alarm
The crew member who discover/receives the fire alarm must sound the alarm
promptly.
b. The crewman who sounds the alarm must be sure to give the exact location of
the fire, information regarding the type of fire. The exact location may indicate
the need of fast and immediate response.
2. Fire fighting Procedure /Strategy:
a. Size-up
The evaluation and observation of the fire scene on the following:
1. Class of fire
2. The appropriate extinguishing agent to be used
3. The appropriate method of attack
4. How to prevent the extension of fire
5. The required manpower and firefighting assignment.
b. Attack
The method of action to gain immediate control to prevent or minimize the
extension of fire to exposures.
Methods of attack
1. Direct method- most widely known technique, this suffocate the flames as the water is
aimed at the base of the fire.
2. Indirect method- aimed at the ceiling, the water drops down and extinguishes the fire from
above.
It works in two ways:
a. The water will cool the ceiling, which disrupts the thermal balance, and the vapor will absorb
energy.
b. The rest of the water falls like rain, which helps to extinguish the fire.
c. Ventilation
Types:
1. Vertical
2. Horizontal
3. Mechanical/Forced
4. Combination of Vertical and Horizontal
d. Exposure
e. Extinguishment
An action/method performed by fire fighters in putting off the fire by means of
extinguishing agent, such as; water, chemical and foam.
f. Rescue
g. Overhaul
h. Salvage
The following are the strategy used in firefighting:
1. Locate the fire
2. Confine the fire
3. Extinguish the fire
4. Exposures
In addition, the basic tactics the
following are also added:
1. Rescue
2. Overhaul
3. Ventilation
4. Salvage
Factors to be considered in extinguishment
Time of the Day
a. The hour of the day can have a direct bearing on the life and fire hazards involved.
b. Time also has a direct bearing on the speed o the response o firefighting and rescue
vehicles.
c. During this hours of darkness, special lighting equipment may be needed. Night operations
may require auxiliary firefighting personnel.
Some of the Weather factors that must be considered:
a. Temperature
b. Humidity
c. Wind and Precipitation
 The Fire
Factors to be Evaluated at the Fire Scene:
a. Extent of the fire;
b. Its location in the building;
c. The types of contents involved;
d. The life hazard/s;
e. The fire conditions
f. Type of construction
Occupancy
Determine the number of people that occupy the building, including
the materials that are found in it. Also note the nature of the units
occupying the building
Ventilation
It is a method used or clearing the building of smoke and gases,
localize the fire, and reduce smoke and forcible entry damage.
Types of ventilation:
1. Vertical Ventilation- the method to establish vertical ventilation is a must be worked
from top and down. Heated gases and smoke rise to the highest point and, if confined,
will tend to “mushroom” or rise to the highest point of the building, exerting their
heating effect on everything they touch.
2. Cross or Horizontal Ventilation- If the smoke and gases have not reached the higher
levels, cross ventilation can clear the building one floor at a time. Windows are the
easiest and generally most available for the common types of building, but the
indiscriminate opening of windows and doors can defect the purpose of ventilation.
3. Mechanical or Forced Ventilation- a process or method of ventilation whereby a
device such as smoke ejector is utilized to remove faster excessive heat and dense
smoke in a confined building
Vertical
Ventilation
Cross or Horizontal Ventilation
Mechanical or Forced Ventilation
Factors to Determine the Location for the Opening/Ventilation:
1. Location of intensity of fire
2. Highest point of the roof
3. Direction of the wind existing exposure
4. Extent of fire
5. Obstruction
Mushrooming effect of heated
gases
Steps in the Procedure for Vertical Ventilation
1. Check the condition of the roof support to make sure that they have been burned away
or weaken to a point where there is a possibility to collapse under your weight. Feeling
the roof for hot spots helps you determine if the fire has reached the point to cause
weakening.
2. Plan a way of escape from the roof in case of an emergency, such as roof collapse. Have
a lifetime, especially on a peaked roof, to prevent falling.
3. Use any available openings that are part of the roof construction, such as skylights or
roof trap doors.
4. Make certain passageway for the smoke and heat extends down through the ceiling of
the room. A hole in the roof is of no use if there is no relief for gases, heat, and smoke
in the room below.
5. The opening should be large enough to provide a rapid exit for the smoke and gases.
6. Work with the wind at your back, keeping in mind the heat, explosive characteristics,
and toxic effects of escaping gas.
Steps in the Procedure for Cross, Horizontal Ventilation
1. Open the windows on the leeward side first, and then open the windows on the
windward side.
2. After one floor is clear, ventilate the next floor in the same manner.
3. If at all possible, avoid making openings below the level of the fire.
4. If the opening is made at the same floor level as the fire, hose lines should be available
or immediate use
5. Avoid ventilating a building in such way that fire is withdrawn through any building
part that is not involved.
6. When making an opening, exercise great care to prevent the spread of the fire to
exposures, and have hose lines available to protect the exposures.
Advantages of Ventilation
1. Aids Rescue Operations
Proper ventilation simplifies and expedites the rescue of victims by removing the
smoke and gases that endanger occupants trapped or unconscious, and make the conditions
safer for firefighters.
2. Speeds Attack and Extinguishment
The removal of smoke, gases and heat from the building permits firefighters to move
rapidly and locate the area and proceed with extinguishment. It will also reduce the danger
of asphyxiation.
3. Reduces Property Damages
Rapid extinguishment of fire reduces property damage.
4. Reduces Mushroom
When sufficient heat is confined in the area, the temperature of combustible material
rises to their ignition points.
In order to prevent this critical situation from occurring , top ventilation must be
provided to release superheated fire gases and smoke
Exposures
It is an action taken by the firefighters
to cover or secure other building/s, people
from exposing themselves near the affected
area or danger from fire.
An exposure, during firefighting, is a
structure or its contents that can be ignited
by a fire in an adjoining building or other
exterior source. Firefighters also use the
term “exposure hazard” to identify a
building that is not involved in a fire, but
because of its condition, position, or
contents can become a hazard.
 The extent of the hazard depends upon the size of the exposure, the distance
between the buildings, weather conditions, and the exposures susceptibility to
ignition.
Exposed building can be ignited by radiated heat, by direct flame contact, or by
flying brands. The possibility of ignition always exist, but the danger is more acute
when large quantities of heat are produced.
Factors that Contribute Ignition to
exposure:
1. Direction and velocity of the wind;
2. The relative humidity of the
atmosphere;
3. The distance between the building
(the most important single factor in
the potential danger of an exposure).
Type of exposures
1. Fire Exposure – refers to the property exposed to the fire, such as property directly
across alleys or besides the fire building.
2. Life Exposure – refers to the danger to the lives of the occupants of any building
that is in line with the travel of dangerous fumes or gases thrown off by fire as well
as to the occupants of any building that is seriously exposed to the fire from the
building on fire. All other firefighting actions (tactics) stem from this basic strategy.
RESCUE DEFINED:
Any action taken by the firefighter to remove occupants/persons from a burning
building/hazards to a safety place.
Rescue is a very broad term, it may be light or heavy; it may involve first aid,
resuscitator or heart-lung resuscitation techniques, emergency childbirth, or
retrieving persons who has fallen or trapped down a well.
HYDRAULIC RESCUE TOOLS
Hydraulic rescue tools are used by
emergency rescue personnel to assist
vehicle extrication of crash victims, as well
as other rescues from small spaces.
These tools include cutters, spreader
and rams. They are popularly referred to in
the United States, Canada, United
Kingdom and Australia as Jaws of life, a
trademark of Hale Products Inc.
Hydraulic rescue tools are powered by
a hydraulic pump, which can be hand-,
foot-, or engine-powered, or even built into
the tool itself.
CUTTER
The cutter is a hydraulic tool which is
designed to cut through metal. It is often
called a crab-cutter, owing to the shape and
configuration of its blades.
Sometimes specified as to its capacity to
cut a solid circular steel bar, these are most
commonly used to cut through a vehicle’s
structure in an extrication operation.
HURST CUTTER
SPREADER
A spreader is hydraulic tool designed with 2 arms which have a narrow tip. The tip of the
tool can be inserted into a narrow gap between two vehicle panels (such as between 2 doors,
or between a door and a fender)- when the tool is operated, the arms are opened, drawing
apart the metal in the panels. Spreaders are used to “pop” vehicle doors from their hinges.
SPREADER
SPREADER-CUTTERS
Whilst a cutter or spreader tool is designed for a particular application, a combination tool is
also available which combines the cutting and spreading functions of separate tools into a
single tool.
SPREADER-
CUTTER
POWER
The tools operate on the basis of hydraulic oil pressure of up to 720 bar, which must be
provided from a power source. The most commonly used source is a separate power unit,
which us a small petrol engine connected to a hydraulic pump. The oil is pressurized in the
pump, and conveyed in a hose under pressure to the tool.
POWER UNIT
Self Contained Breathing Apparatus
BREATHING APPARATUS
A device that provide the user with an additional supply of air or breathing protection.
A self contained breathing apparatus, or SCBA, sometimes referred to as a Compressed Air
Breathing Apparatus (CABA) or simply Breathing Apparatus (BA) is a device worn by
rescue workers, firefighters, and others to provide breathable air in a hostile environment.
The term self “Self-Contained” means that the breathing set is not dependent on a remote
supply (e.g., through a long hose).
If designed for use under water, it is called SCUBA (self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus).
Two Kinds of SCBA
1. Closed Circuit
The closed-circuit type filters, supplements, and recirculates exhaled gas: it is used
when a longer duration supply of breathing gas is needed, such as in mine rescue
and long tunnels, and going through a passages too narrow for a big open-circuit air
cylinder.
The CC-SCBA recirculates breathing air and purifies it, removing carbon dioxide
and adding fresh oxygen.
2. Open Circuit
Open circuit industrial breathing sets are filled with filtered , compressed air, rather
than pure oxygen. Typical open circuit systems have two regulators; a first stage to
reduce the pressure of air to allow it to be carried to the mask, and a second stage
regulator to reduce it even further to a level just above standard atmospheric pressure.
This air is then fed to the mask via either a demand valve (activating only on
inhalation) or a continuous positive pressure valve ( providing constant airflow to the
mask)
An open circuit rescue or firefighter SCBA has a full face mask, regulator, air
cylinder, cylinder pressure gauge, and a harness with adjustable shoulder straps and
waist belt which lets it be worn on the back.
Parts of breathing Apparatus:
1. Face piece- an assembly that fits onto the face of the person using the breathing
apparatus, forming a tight seal to the face and transmitting air or oxygen to the user.
Parts of Face Piece
a. Head harness
b. Flexible tube
c. Exhalation valve
d. Lens
e. Nose cup
f. Speech diaphragm
g. Pressure relief valve
Types:
a. Demand type regulators
b. Positive pressure type
2. Regulator parts
a. Alarm
-Whistle
-Bell
b. High pressure hose
c. By-pass valve
d. Gauge
3. Air Cylinder
Parts:
a. Pressure gauge
b. Control valve
4. Back pack or Sling pack – designed to hold the unit securely and comfortable on the wearer.
Overhaul
A complete and detailed check of the
structures and materials involved in the
fire to make sure that every spark and
ember has been extinguished and to have
assurance against re-ignition.
SALVAGE
An action taken by the firefighters in
preventing excessive damage by fire,
smoke, and water with the use of salvage
cover or by removing materials out from
the burning building.
Structural fighters must be completely familiar
with firefighting operations involving hose
layout. A complete hose layout consists of one
end of the hose connected to a water source and
other end of the hose connected to the nozzle.
Two Categories of Devices in Hose
Layout:
A. Hose Appliances
B. Hose Tools
Hose tools are variety of tools used
in conjunction with hose lines. Hose
tools do not have water flowing through
them.
They are variety of hose tools used in conjunction
with hose lines. Some of the common ones are:
1. Hose rollers
2. Hose Jackets
3. Hose Clamps
4. Spanner Wrenches
5. Hose bridges or ramps
6. chafing blocks
7. Hose strap, hose rope and hose chain
8. Universal thread adapter
Universal thread adapter- is a
very useful tool on any fire
vehicle. It can make a very quick
connection to damaged or
unusual size male hose
connections. On one side of the
adapter is a standard 2 ½ inch
male connections with National
Standard threads.
Hose Jackets- a hallow
cylindrical or barrel-shaped
device that opens lengthwise
through the center on a set of
hinges. It is a rubber lined to
make it water tight. When the
jacket is clamped around the
leaking portion of a hose or over
a leaking hose connection, the
water is confined by the hose
jacket. This tool can prevent the
disablement of the entire hose
layout they come in 2 ½ and 3-
inch sizes.
Hose Clamps- a tool used to stop the flow of water in a fire hose without shutting off the source of
water supply.
Types of Hose Clamps:
a. Screw-down
b. Press-down
c. Hydraulic down
Spanner Wrench and Hydrant
Wrenches
a. Spanner wrench is used to
tighten leaking connections and
to loosen connections that are
too tight to break with hands
alone. Can be used as a wedge
for prying. Is has a slot for
pulling nails, and a flat surface
for hammering.
b. Hydrant Wrenches are used to
open and close fire hydrant and to
remove hydrant outlet caps. Some
are designed to tighten or loosen
coupling connections. It is usually
equipped with a pentagon opening
in its head that fits most standard
ire hydrant opening nuts.

Spanner Wrenchs
a. Adjustable Hydrant Wrench is made up of high-strength ductile steel with handle of plated alloy
steel
b. Universal Spanner Wrench is an all purpose wrench featuring belt hook eye, gas cock shup-off,
and claws.
c. Folding Pocket Spanner is a compact folding spanner for rocker lug or lug couplings.
Hose Strap
It is a 36-inch length of cloth strap with a handle on one end and a hook on the other.
It is used for moving hose layouts, usually up ladders or staircases.
Rope
It is a safety line used for hoisting tools or various floors of a structure and used for
anchoring to stationary objects, ladders, charged hose lines, and other accessories
(consists of 100-foot lengths of Manila hemp rope with one eye splice in one end.
Hose Bridge (Hose Ramp)
A hose tool used to prevent damage to the hose when vehicles cross a street, or where the traffic can
not be diverted.
Chafing Blocks
Tools used to prevent damage to the hose where the hose is subjected to rubbing from vibrations.
Rubber Mallet
A hose tool used to strike the
lugs of a coupling to tighten or
loosen the coupling without
damaging the lugs. It is used to
make a coupling completely
airtight.
Hose Roller (Hose hoist)
These are hose tools used to prevent damage to hose lines when it is being dragged over sharp
objects such as roof edges and a window sills.
The Hose Appliances
This is any piece of hardware device use in conjunction with the fire hose for the purpose of
delivering water.
Examples of hose appliances are:
1. Valves
2. Valves Devices
3. Fittings
4. Intake Devices
Valves
Valves control the flow of water in a hose lines, and at a pumper.
These valves include:
1. Ball valves
2. Gate valves
3. Butterfly valves
4. Clapper valves
Valves
Valves control the flow of water in a hose lines, and at a pumper.
These valves include:
1. Ball valves
2. Gate valves
3. Butterfly valves This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC

4. Clapper valves

This Photo byThis Photo by

Unknown Unknown
Author Author
is licensed is licensed
under under CC BY-NC
CC BY-SA
LADDER OPERATIONS
Ladders are very important during an emergency situation, particularly during fire, when
every second counts towards the success or failure of an operation. Firefighters must know
the proper procedures for carrying, raising, and climbing ladders so thoroughly that their
actions will be governed by habit. Even after every performance or procedures are well-
established, constant practice is necessary in order to achieve the degree of efficiency.
Originally, ladders were made from hard wood, with solid beams. Even in short lengths
these ladders were heavy and hard to handle. As the years passed by, an improved metal
ladder made of lightweight metal alloys were introduced and to date are most commonly
used in fire service.
 Types of
Ladders

Ground Aerial
Ladders Ladders
Ground ladders vary in sizes from 3.1 to 17meters(10-55feet) long. It is being carried on
a pumper or firetrucks.
 Forms of Ground
Ladder

Hook Ladder
Wall Extension Ladder (roof) or straight Attic ladder
ladder
Straight Ladder
This is a type of ladder that contains only
one section. It ranges in length from 12 to
16 feet. The most common size is the or
the 14-foot straight ladder. The roof or
hook ladder is a straight ladder adapted for
a special, hooks are mounted on a movable
socket that purpose. permits them to fold
inward when not in use.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC

Extension Ladder
This is consists of a bed and one or more fly adders. The fly ladder slides through guides on the
upper end of the bed ladder. It contains locks (pawls or dogs) which hook over the rungs of the bed
ladder. These secure it in a designated position, dependent upon the desired length of the ladder. The
fly ladder is usually raised by a halyard fastened to the lower rung and operated over a pulley on the
upper end of bed ladder. The 24.,25-, or 36-foot ladders are the types commonly found and carried on
the pumpers or fire trucks.
Attic Ladder
It provides means of reaching through an opening into attics, lofts, and other areas that are somewhat
difficult to reach without a special ladder. It can be folded or collapsed for a small room or closet
works. They are usually short because they are required to reach only a short distance.
Wall Ladder
This type of ladder best used in rescue where a ladder in place is already falls short of the endangered
person. It allows the user to climb up or down, one storey at a time (e.g. scalling or pompier, and fire
escape).
Type of Ladders According to its Beam:
a) Solid beam ground ladder - made of heavy hard wood and/ or lightweight metal alloys.
b) Trussed beam ground ladder - a lightweight metal alloy easier to handle and carry.
Aerial Ladders
This type of ladder that is mounted on a turntable, capable of extending up to 30.5 meters (100 feet),
may have three or four metal fly sections of ladder that can be raised or lowered by hydraulically
controlled cables.
Forms of Aerial Ladders
1. Hydraulic Aerial Ladders
2. Elevating Platform (Articulated boom).
Uses:
Provide a source of heavy streams in combating fire;
best used for rescue operations;
used an elevator to lift handlines, hand tools and short ladders up to its load limits;
used as a reconnaissance platform or a place from which to direct operations.
Ladder Terminology
1, Bed Ladder- the lowest section of an extension ladder.
2. Fly Ladder - the top section of an extension ladder
3. Butt - the bottom end of a ladder
4. Heel - the part of the ladder that touches the ground
5. Halyard - a rope or cable used to raise the fly ladder
6. Pawl or Dog - the mechanism located at the end of the fly ladder that locks to the bed ladder
7. Rung - the cross member of a ladder that is used for climbing
8. Top or Tip - it is the top part of a ladder
9. Hooks - part of a ladder that is used to hook over a roof peak, sills, or walls where the heel does not rest on
a foundation (found only on roof-type ladders).
10. Stops - made of metal or wood blocks used to prevent the fly of an extension ladder from extending out
further from the ladder.
11. Guides - light metal strips of an extension ladder that guides the fly ladder while it is being raised or
lowered.
Handling of Ladders:
A. Ladder Safety:
 always wear protective gear including gloves when working with ladders;
 choose the proper ladder for the job;
 use leg muscle when lifting ladders below the waist;
 use the proper number of fire fighters/ personnel for each raise;
 make sure that ladders are not raised into electrical wires;
 check ladder for proper angle;
 check the rung locks to be sure that they are seated over the rungs;
 make sure that the ladder is secure at the top of bottom or both before climbing;
 climb smoothly and rhythmically;
 do not overload the ladder;
 always use a leg lock when working from the ladder;
 inspect ladders for damage and wear after each use.
B. Working Rules for Ladder length and Ground Ladder Placement:
ladder should extend a few feet preferably 5 rungs beyond foot edge for both footing and handhold
for person stepping the ladder;
for ventilation, ladder is place at the side of a window, windward side;
for rescue from a window opening, the tip of the ladder should be placed just below the window sill.
If the window opening is wide enough, the ladder may be extended into one side of the opening, two
or three rungs above the window sill.
C. Other Ladder Placement guidelines:
 place ladder at least two points on different sides of the building;
 avoid placing ladders over openings such as windows and doors;
 take advantage of strong points in building construction when placing ladder;
 avoid placing ladders where they may come into contact with overhead obstruction such as wires,
tree limbs or signage;
 avoid placing ladders on main paths of travel that fire fighters or evacuees will need to use;
 avoid placing ladders on uneven terrain or on soft spots;
 avoid p[lacing ladders where they may come in contact either on burning surfaces or openings
with flames present;
 avoid placing ladders on top of elevator trapdoors or utility covers;
 do not place ladders against unstable walls or surfaces.
Important Factors and Precautionary Measures in
Ladder Raise:
Fire fighters must need to look overhead for electrical wires or equipment before making final
selection on where to place a ladder or what method to us for raising it.
A distance of at least 10 ft (3m) from all energized electrical equipment. The distance must be
maintained at all times, including the raising of the ladder.
In general, metal and fiberglass extension ladders are designed to be used with the FLY OUT (away
from the building) except specified by the ladder manufacturer. Wood extension ladders are intended
to be deployed with the FLY IN (next to the building).
Type of Ladder Carries:
1. One-man carry - Remove the ladder from the
apparatus and pass either arm through the ladder at
the middle of its length. Carry it with the hooks
forward and lowered.
2. Two-man carry - Normally extension ladders
from 24 to 36 feet in length require at least two
men. To remove the ladder from the fire apparatus,
place one man near each end. Each man then
passes one arm through the ladder and grasps the
second rung forward. Both men must be on the
same side.
3. Four-man carry - Remove the ladder apparatus
and place it on the ground with the fly up. Have the
four men take their positions, two ear each end, on
opposite sides of the ladder. Face the top of the
ladder. Reach down and grasp a rung with the hand
nearest it. Raise the on the shoulder.
3. Four-man carry - Remove the ladder apparatus and
place it on the ground with the fly up. Have the four
men take their positions, two ear each end, on opposite
sides of the ladder. Face the top of the ladder. Reach
down and grasp a rung with the hand nearest it. Raise
the on the shoulder.
4. Six-man carry - this procedure is the same as the
four-man carry except that an additional two men are
placed in the middle on the opposite sides to carry a
heavier ladder.
Ladder Raises
Ladder raising requires practice and cooperation.
Before raising a ladder, you must know how far you should
place the heel of the ladder from the building.
Ways or Methods to Determine the Distance of the
Ladder Heel from the Building:
1. Divide the length of the ladder by 5 and add 2.e.i. if
the ladder is fully extended, the heel should be 9 feet from
the building (35/5 = 7+2 =9).
2. Divide the length of the ladder by 4. If you used a
fully extended 35-foot
Ladder, divide 35 by 4 and the result is also a distance
of approximately9 feet
Types off Ladder Raises
1. One-man raise
2. Two-man raise
3. Three-man raise
4. Four-man raise
Four-Man Raise
The 36-foot extension ladder should not be raised by less then
three people. Four men are better. The four-nan raise is very
similar to the three-man raise; but two men are used at the heel
of the ladder on this raise.
Proper Climbing Angle: Rule of Thumb
Stand with your toes against the butt, with
out-stretched arms, reach for. a rung at about
shoulder 1level(applicable only for an average
fire fighter, on the other hand an exceptionally
tall or short fire fighter might have to make
some adjustments) approximately 75degrees
angle of inclination between the ladder and the
ground.
POST-EXTINGUSHMENT PROCEDURES
Involved in this discussion are the salvage and overhaul operations, structural stability, the preservation of
evidence and building clean-up. These are firefighting responsibilities that are carried out atter a fire is
apparently extinguished.
Salvage and Overhaul Operations
Salvage work in firefighting is preventing excessive damage caused by fire, smoke, and water. Keeping a
fire loss at a minimum requires a knowledge of salvage operations and the ability to improvise or "make do" as
the need arises.
Two (2) Ways of Performing Salvage:
1. Remove the material outside the building involved in a fire or to an area that is not involved in the fire. This
method is used when there is sufficient time and when there is enough manpower carry out the job, or when there
is only a small amount of material to be carried outside or to protect.
2. Protect the material where it stands. This method is used when the size or the quantity of the contents of the
building dictates. Factors Involve in Salvage Work:
a) The amount of salvage equipment available;
b) The personnel available;
c) The type and amount of material involved; and
d) The method of storage
Smoke and heat cause damage, but there is something else that can do more damage than the Smoke, the heat, and the
fire. This is water!
Most of the damage from happened to material/s in storage, water is usually and results from have no control during
the fire. However, frequent inspections by the fire department can uncover such discrepancies beforehand. Correcting
of these will help control the damage if a fire does occur.
Some of the discrepancies are the following:
1. Material stored directly on the floor, where it soaks up water, instead of on pallets and skids;
2. Items stored in containers that weakens when wet:
3. Items on shelves or in bins arranged improperly against the walls, allowing the water to run onto
and into the stored material or materials.
Methods Used to Minimize Water Damage
4. Sawdust
5. Salvage Covers - these are tarpaulins, known as "tarps". They are made of cotton canvas material
treated with a waterproofing compound.
Two Sizes of Standard Salvage Covers
1. Small (12 by 14 feet, Accordion Fold)
2. Large (12 by 18 feet)
Methods used for Cover:
 "One-man throw" technique - a quick way to spread the small salvage cover in protecting
materials/items.
 The "counter payoff" - method used for spreading the cover by two men.
Steps to Fold the Large Salvage Cover:
 Two persons position themselves at the corners of one of the longest sides;
 Both fold the cover double at the same time;
 Then redouble the fold again;
 Bring the two ends together; and
 Fold it again
Overhaul
This operation involves a complete and detailed check of the structures and
materials involved in the fire to make sure that every spark and ember has been
extinguished and there is no possibility of re-ignition.
Structural Stability
Before the search for hidden fires, the condition of the building in the area to be searched should be
known. The intensity of the fire during the burning and the amount of water used in its control are the
most important factors that affect the condition of the building.
The amount of water used determines the additional weight on the floors and walls because of their
absorbent qualities. Considering these two factors carefully can prevent unnecessary loss of life
during overhaul because of building collapse.
Preserving Evidence and Building Cleanup
Fires of intentional origin can be caused, responded to and extinguished without anyone noticing,
reporting or investigating. Fire Department personnel must be able to recognize the evidence that is
sometimes quite pronounced immediately after the fires. Arson is a peculiar crime because there are
usually no during and complaining witnesses to it.
Steps in Preserving Evidence:
1. Protecting and Preserving Evidence
2. Guarding Evidence
3. Identifying and Removing Evidence
Protecting and Preserving Evidence:
1. Keep the evidence where you found it, untouched and undisturbed, if at all possible;
2. When you discover that you cannot leave at the fire scene, properly identify and safeguard it.
Make no changes of any kind in the evidence other in the than what is absolutely necessary in the
extinguishment of the fire;
3. Photograph the evidence immediately. One precautionary to be taken by all fire fighters during
fire fighting operation is to avoid trampling over possible arson evidence and obliterating it. Be
careful in the use of water to avoid similar unsatisfactory results.
Guarding Evidence:(Ways to Protect Evidence)
Remaining at the Fire Scene:
1. Cordon or rope the area containing the evidence, or pile goods and materials of various kinds around the
evidence to keep people away until the arrival of the investigators.
2. Post guards to prevent tampering with the evidence or handling it needlessly. Leave plenty of room around the
evidence to protect it exactly as found.

Methods or Ways Investigator/s to protect Human Foot-prints:

a) measure footprints;
b) compare the prints;
c) estimate the length of stride and the position of the feet;
d) peculiarities in the gait (walk or run) of a suspect;
e) secure identifying marks on the soles and heels of the shoes;)
f) placed box over prints to prevent dust from blowing over clear prints;
g) keep them from in good condition for photographsand plaster casts.
Identifying and Removing Evidence:
Steps/Procedures:
1. Collected evidence should be properly identified. and preserved in clean containers.
2. Make a careful notation of the date, time, and the place where the evidence found
3. Initials of the person (investigators/persons who collected the evidence) on cans, bottles, and
other articles should be noted.
4. Keep a record of witnesses and of each person who has had or will have of the evidence
5. Protect partly burned paper and ash between layers of plastic or between pieces of window glass
for the investigator and for transportation to a laboratory;
6. Preserve letters, documents, and bills to assist in establishing a person's financial status which might be a
motive for arson;
7. Place wood of containing suspected of paraffin or oil in a clear container and seal chemical analysis will be
it until conducted;
8. Pack objects such as charred candle wick and burned matches in a bottle containing cotton to prevent
breaking the evidence by jarring and handling;
9. Store samples of materials such as cotton, wood rayon, felt, and other fabrics, in a clean, large-mouthed
bottles, seal tightly and mark properly;
10. Volatile liquids, oil samples, oil-soaked rags, waste and the like should be kept in tin cans and seal them.
Firefighters who discover evidence of arson should be able to identify it later. When
such material has been properly marked, it is then ready to be turned over to the
proper authorities.
Building Cleanup:
After a fire is extinguished, water and debris will remain. It is the responsibility
of the fire protection personnel to remove them. Scoop up non salvageable
materials, such as plaster, rags paper, and the like, into a carrier, carry them out of
the building, and pile them in a conspicuous place for future examination.
BUILDING CODE AND BUILDING REQUIREMENTS
Building Code - A standard rules for safety in the construction of buildings. Building codes vary in
the fire-resistance requirements in accordance with the occupancy classification.
BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS:
1. Intended Occupancy and Use
2. Life Safety
3. Fixed Fire Protection System
4. Spacing of Structures
5. Height Requirements
6. Fire Retarding Features
Intended Occupancy and Use
A building design is based upon the occupancy of both the individual structure, considering
combustibility of the contents and the human factors of occupancy.
Life Safety
The provision of adequate exits is the most important feature in designing a building for life safety.
Once fire is notified, occupants can leave the building in the least possible time through exits free
from fire, heat and smoke.
Fixed Fire Protection System
Fixed fire protection system installed will be accordance with sound economical and engineering
practices. These systems insure the maximum life safety-or maximum degree of property protection
where the size, type of construction, occupancy, or other conditions create severe monetary fire-loss
potential.
Spacing of Structures
Planning and construction an adequate separation of buildings and structures is very important to
prevent the spread of fire from an adjacent building or from area to area.
Height Requirements
Owing to the life hazard involved, it is a good practice to limit the height of structures that have an unusually
high degree of combustibility.
Fire Retarding Features
While a facility is still being designed, everything possible should be planned and done to make the facility
eventually fire safe. Fire retarding features must be specified in the plans. For the safety of personnel, important
provisions in preventing the spread of fire(both vertically and horizontally in buildings should be constructed).
a. Fire Stops - Wood is used as a fire stop, it must beat least 2 inches thick.
b. Fire Partitions - Fire partitions are installed to separate areas of hazardous occupancies from areas of ordinary or light
hazard occupancies that resist the passage of fire from one area to another.
The degree of fire resistance will be governed by the following factors:
 Type of building construction;
 size of the hazardous area;
 the severity of the fire hazard.

c. Fire Walls - Fire walls are installed for the purpose of preventing the passage of fire from one building to another, or
from one fire area of a building to another
MISCELLANEOUS HAZARDS
The following are some of the hazards that can be found everywhere:
1. Sparks - Live sparks from Live sparks from chimneys, refuse burners, stacks, and other similar sources must
be given priority consideration.
2. Mechanical Devices- Engines of any type, or other machines in which friction is created, are possible
sources of fire. An overheated bearing of an engine or machine is one good example.
3. Acids and other Chemicals- all kinds o strong acids, such as nitric, sulfuric and hydrochloric, although they
are not themselves or supporters o combustion.
4. Coal-Tar Derivates- coal-tar derivatives in both crude and refined forms are being used in quite extensively.
5. Effects of the Sun - The sun is frequently responsible for fires, though it usually assisted by manmade
implement. A forest fires have been known to start from discarded bottles or other fragments of glass left by
careless campers.