CSC102:Discrete Structure

Instructor Khurram Iqbal

Department of Computer Science

COMSATS University, Islamabad
Recap

Lecture No 2

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 Compound Statement

 A statement that is formed using logical

connectives is called compound statement.
 Examples:
1. “Discrete Mathematics is not difficult to me”

2. “3 + 2 = 5” and “Lahore is a city in Pakistan”

3. “The grass is green” or “ It is hot today”

 NOT, AND, OR are called LOGICAL CONNECTIVES.

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 Logical connectives

CONNECTIVE MEANINGS SYMBOL CALLED

Negation NOT ~ Tilde

Conjunction AND  Hat

Disjunction OR  Vel

Exclusive OR XOR  pq

(p q)  ~(p  q)

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 Compound Statement

 The truth value of a compound statement is

determined by using Truth Table. (p q)  ~(p  q)

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 Lecture No 3

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 Today Covered
1. Conditional Statement
• Alternative ways for expressing
conditional statement
2. Inverse, converse, and contrapositive of
conditional statement
3. What is LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE and how
to prove it using Truth Table?
4. What is TAUTOLOGY?
5. What is CONTRADICTION?
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 Conditional Statement /Implication

 Consider the statement:

 "If you earn an A in Math, then I'll buy you a computer."

 This statement is made up of two simpler

statements:
 p: "You earn an A in Math," and
 q: "I will buy you a computer."
 If p and q are statement variables, the
conditional of q by p is
 “If p then q” or “p implies q”
 It is denoted as p  q

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 Conditional Statement /Implication

 pq
 The statement p is called the hypothesis (or
antecedent)
 The arrow " " is the conditional operator
 The statement q is called the conclusion (or
consequent).

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 Alternative ways of p  q

ALTERNATIVE WAYS OF EXPRESSING IMPLICATIONS

The implication p  q could be expressed in many alternative ways as:

 “if p then q”  “not p unless q”

 “p implies q”  “q follows from p”
 “if p, q”  “q if p”
 “p only if q”  “q whenever p”
 “p is sufficient for q”  “q is necessary for p”
 a sufficient condition  a s necessary
for q is p condition for p is q

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 Alternative ways of p  q

"If you earn an A in Math, then I'll buy you a computer."

 “if p then q”
 "If you earn an A in Math, then I'll buy you a computer."
 “p implies q”
 “Earning an A in Math implies buying you a
computer."
 “if p, q”
 “If you earn an A in Math, I'll buy you a computer."
 “p only if q”
 “Getting an A in Math only if I’ll buy you a computer”

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 Alternative ways of p  q

"If you earn an A in Math, then I'll buy you a computer."

 “p is sufficient for q”
 Getting an A in Math is sufficient for buying you a
computer
 “a sufficient condition for q is p”
 A sufficient condition for buying you a computer is to
earn an A in Math

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 Alternative ways of p  q

"If you earn an A in Math, then I'll buy you a computer."

 “not p unless q”
 You did not earn an A in Math unless I'll buy you a
computer
 “q follows from p”
 Buying a computer follows from earning an A in Math
 “q if p”
 I'll buy you a computer if you earn an A in Math
 “q whenever p”
 I'll buy you a computer whenever you earn an A in
Math

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 Alternative ways of p  q

"If you earn an A in Math, then I'll buy you a computer."

 “q is necessary for p”
 Buying a computer is necessary for earning an A in
Math
 “a necessary condition for p is q”
 A necessary condition for earning an A in Math is to
buy a computer

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 How to determine truth value of implication

 Consider the statement:

 "If you earn an A in Math, then I'll buy you
a computer."
 Under what circumstances are you justified in
saying that I spoke falsely?
 That is, under what circumstances is the above
sentence false?

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 How to determine truth value of implication

 The hypothesis is the statement:

 “you earn an A in Math”
 and the conclusion is the statement
 “I'll buy you a computer."
 Thinking of this as a promise
 What is the truth value of given statement?
 First, suppose that the you earn an A in Math
 i.e. p is TRUE
 Now if I fulfill my promise(i.e. q is TRUE),
surely given statement is true.
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 How to determine truth value of implication

 if p and q are both true, then p → q is true

p q pq

T T T

 On the other hand, if you earn an A in Math and

I do not buy you a computer, I broke my
promise
 i.e. given statement is false

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 How to determine truth value of implication

 the only way that promise can be broken is if

you do earn an A and I do not buy you a
computer.
 That is if you earn an A in Math and I do not buy you a
computer, surely given statement is false.
 If p is true and q is false, then p → q is false.

p q pq

T F F

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 How to determine truth value of implication

 Now, suppose that you do not earn an A.

 i.e. p is FALSE
 In this case, I may or may not buy you a
computer.
 Surely we would not consider that the given
statement to be false.
 Case 1: If p is false and q is true, then p → q is
True
p q pq
F T T
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 How to determine truth value of implication

 Case 2:If p is false and q is false, then p → q is True.

p q pq
F F T

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 How to determine truth value of implication

 In general, we use this idea to define the

statement p  q.  

 It is false when p is true and q is false;

otherwise it is true.
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

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 Practice with conditional statement

Determine the truth value of each of the following

conditional statements:
1.“If 1 = 1, then 3 = 3.” TRUE
2.“If 1 = 1, then 2 = 3.” FALSE

3.“If 1 = 0, then 3 = 3.” TRUE

4.“If 1 = 0, then 2 = 3.” TRUE

5. “If 1 = 1 and 1 = 2, then 2 = 3.” TRUE

6. “If 1 = 3 or 1 = 2 then 3 = 3.” TRUE

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Inverse, converse and contrapositive of implication

 The inverse of the conditional statement:

 p  q is ~p  ~q
 The converse of the conditional statement:
 p  q is q  p
 The contrapositive of the conditional statement:
 ~q  ~p

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 Writing inverse
p  q is ~p  ~q

1. If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.

If today is not Friday, then 2 + 3  5.
2. If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
If it does not snow today I will not ski tomorrow.
3. If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.
If P is not a square then P is not a rectangle.
4. If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.
If my car is not in the repair shop, then I shall get to the class.

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 Writing converse
p  q is q  p

1. If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.

If 2 + 3 = 5, then today is Friday.
2. If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
I will ski tomorrow only if it snows today.
3. If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.
If P is a rectangle then P is a square.
4. If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.
If I can’t get to the class, then my car is in the repair shop.

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 Writing contrapositive
p  q is ~q  ~p
1. If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.
If 2 + 3  5, then today is not Friday.
2. If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
I will not ski tomorrow only if it does not snow today.
3. If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.
If P is not a rectangle then P is not a square.
4. If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.
If I get to the class, then my car is not in the repair shop.

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 Application of Propositional
Logic
Translating English Sentences

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 Translating English sentence to Symbols

Let p and q be propositions:

p = “you get an A on the final exam”
q = “you do every exercise in this book”
r = “you get an A in this class”
Write the following propositions using p, q, and r and logical
connectives.
1. To get an A in this class it is necessary for you to get an A on the
final.
2. You do every exercise in this book; You get an A on the final,
implies, you get an A in the class.
3. Getting an A on the final and doing every exercise in this book is
sufficient
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 Solutions

1. To get an A in this class it is necessary for you to get an A in the

final.
SOLUTION rp

2. You do every exercise in this book; You get an A in the final,

implies, you get an A in the class.
SOLUTION pqr

3. Getting an A in the final and doing every exercise in this book is

sufficient for getting an A in this class.
SOLUTION pqr
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Translating Symbolic Proposition into English

Let p, q, and r be the propositions:

p = “you have the flu”
q = “you miss the final exam”
r = “you pass the course”
Express the following propositions as an English sentence.
1. p  q
2. ~q  r
3. ~p  ~q r

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 Solution

1. p  q
If you have flu, then you will miss the final examination.
2. ~q  r
If you don’t miss the final examination, you will pass the
course.
3. ~p  ~q r
If you neither have flu nor miss the final examination, then
you will pass the course.

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 Exercise

Construct truth table for (pq)(qp)

p q pq qp (pq)(qp)

T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

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 Bi-conditional Statement

 From previous exercise, we see that pq is not

the same as q p.
 It may happen, however, that both
p q and q p are true.
 For example, if p= “1+1= 2" and q=“2+2 = 4," then
p q and q p are both true because p and q are
both true.
 Similarly, if p= “1+1= 3" and q=“2+2 = 5,"
then p q and q p are both true because

p and q are both false.

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 Bi-conditional Statement

 If p and q are statement variables, the

biconditional of p and q is “p if, and only if, q”
and is denoted pq.
 It is true if both p and q have the same truth
values and false if p and q have opposite truth
values.
 The words if and only if are sometimes
abbreviated iff.
 The double headed arrow " " is the
biconditional operator.
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 Truth Table of Bi-conditional Statement

p q p q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

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 Logical Equivalence

 Two statement forms are called logically

equivalent if, and only if, they have identical
truth values for all possible truth values for their
statement variables.
 The logical equivalence of statement forms P
and Q is denoted by writing P  Q.

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 Example-1

Double Negative Property ~(~p)  p

p ~p ~(~p)

T F T

F T F

Same Truth Values

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 Example-2

~(pq) and ~p  ~q are not logically equivalent

p q ~p ~q pq ~(pq) ~p  ~q
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T F
F T T F F T F
F F T T F T T

Different truth values in row 2 and row 3

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 Your Turn
Are the statements (p  q)  r and (p  q)  r logically equivalent?

p q r pq q  r (p  q)  r p (q  r)
T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F
T F T F F F F
T F F F F F F
F T T F T F F
F T F F F F F
F F T F F F F
F F F F F F F

Same truth values

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 Logical Equivalence involving implication

Use truth table to show pq  ~q  ~p

p q ~q ~p pq ~q  ~p
T T F F T T
T F T F F F
F T F T T T
F F T T T T

same truth values

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 Logical Equivalence involving implication

Use truth table to show pq  ~pq

p q pq ~p ~pq
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

same truth values

Result: pq  ~pq Implications Law
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 Logical Equivalence involving Bi-conditional

pq  (pq)(qp)

p q pq pq qp (pq)(qp)

T T T T T T
T F F F T F
F T F T F F
F F T T T T

same truth values

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 Logical Equivalence involving Bi-conditional

Show that ~pq and p~q are logically equivalent

p q ~p ~q ~pq p~q
T T F F F F
T F F T T T
F T T F T T
F F T T F F

same truth values

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 Your Turn

Show that ~(pq) and pq are logically equivalent

p q pq ~(pq) pq

T T F T T
T F T F F
F T T F F
F F F T T

same truth values

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 Negation of AND, OR, and
implication

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 Negation of AND, OR and Implication

 The negation of compound statement involving AND

 ~(p  q)  ~p  ~q.
 The negation of compound statement involving OR

~(p  q)  ~p  ~q.
 The negation of the conditional statement:
 ~ (p  q)  p  ~ q

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 Negation of AND

~(p  q)  ~p  ~q

p q ~p ~q pq ~(p  q) ~p  ~q
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T F
F T T F F T F
F F T T F T T

Same truth values

Result: ~(p  q)  ~p  ~q De- Morgan’s Law
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 Negation of OR

~(p  q)  ~p  ~q

p q ~p ~q pq ~(p  q) ~p  ~q
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T

Same truth values

Result: ~(p  q)  ~p  ~q De- Morgan’s Law
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 Negation of implication

~ (p  q)  p  ~ q

p q pq ~(pq) ~q p ~q

T T T F F F
T F F T T T
F T T F F F
F F T F T F

same truth values

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 Exercise

 How do the converse, contrapositive, and inverse relate

to p →q?
 converse  contrapositive ?
 converse  inverse ?
 contrapositive  inverse ?
 Is p →q logically equivalent to ∼q →∼p?
 Is p →q logically equivalent to ∼p ∨ q?

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 Answer

p q pq ~p ~q~p
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

same truth values

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 Answer

p q pq ~p ~pq
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

same truth values

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 Exercise -1

Construct the truth table of (p  q) (~p (p  ~q))

p q p  q ~ p ~ q p  ~ q ~ p (p  ~q) (p  q) 
(~p  (p  ~q))
T T T F F F F T

T F F F T T T T

F T F T F F T T

F F F T T F T T

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 Tautology

A statement form that is always true regardless of the truth values of

the statement variables is called tautology .
A tautology is represented by the symbol “t”.
EXAMPLE: The statement form (p  q) (~p (p  ~q))
is tautology.

(p  q) (~p (p  ~q)) t

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 Exercise -2

Construct the truth table of (p  ~q) (~pq)

p q ~q p~q ~p ~pq (p  ~q) (~pq)

T T F F F T F
T F T T F F F
F T F F T T F
F F T F T T F

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 Contradiction

A statement form that is always false regardless of the truth values of

the statement variables is called contradiction.
A contradiction is represented by the symbol “c”.
EXAMPLE:The statement form (p  ~q) (~pq) is a contradiction.

(p  ~q) (~pq)c

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 Conclusion

Implication: pq
Inverse: ~p  ~q
Converse: qp
Contrapositive: ~q  ~p
NOTE
1. An implication is logically equivalent to it’s contrapositive.
2. The converse and inverse of an implication are logically
equivalent.
3. An implication is not equivalent to it’s converse.

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