“The ultimate aim of modern movement in

biology is in fact to explain all biology in

terms of physics and chemistry”
-Francis Crick
Co-Discoverer of DNA Helix
OBJECTIVES:
 Content Standards: The learners demonstrate understanding of Cell
Theory and Cell Structure and Functions
 Most Essential Learning Competencies:

 Explain the postulates of the cell theory (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-1)

 Describe the structure and function of major and subcellular

organelles(STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-2)
Robert Hooke (1635–1703) was the first to describe cells based upon his microscopic
observations of cork. This illustration was published in his work Micrographia
UNIFIED CELL THEORY

1. All living things consist of one or

more cells.
2. Cell is the smallest unit of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
MODERN CELL THEORY

• Hereditary information (DNA) is passed

from cell to cell.
• All cells have the same basic chemical
composition
• Energy flow occurs within cells.
CELL
• basic unit of life
• Capable of…
a. response to stimuli
b. movement
c. reproduction
d. metabolism
e. complexity
f. adaptation
…that caters the
characteristics of life
CELL STRUCTURE

• All Cells have:

–an outermost plasma membrane
–genetic material in the form of DNA
–cytoplasm with ribosomes
PLANT ANIMAL
CELL CELL
1. PLASMA MEMBRANE
• All membranes are
phospholipid bilayers
with embedded proteins
• The outer plasma
membrane
– controls what gets in and out
of the cell
– receives signals
CELL MEMBRANE
 STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE
Lipid Bilayer -2 layers of
phospholipids
A. Phosphate head is
polar
(Hydrophilic)
B.Fatty acid tails
non- polar
(Hydrophobic)
C.Proteins embedded
in membrane
2. Genetic material in the form of DNA

Prokaryotes
– no membrane
around the
DNA
Eukaryotes
– DNA is within
3.Cytoplasm with ribosomes
Cytoplasm –is a fluid area
inside the outer plasma
membrane and outside
the DNA region

Ribosomes – make
proteins
CELL STRUCTURE
• All Cells have:
–an outermost
plasma membrane
–genetic material in
the form of DNA
–cytoplasm with
ribosomes
 NUCLEUS
• Function – isolates the cell’s
genetic material, DNA
–DNA directs/controls
the activities of the
cell
• DNA determines which
types of RNA
are made
NUCLEUS
• DNA is arranged in chromosomes
– Chromosome – fiber of DNA with
proteins attached
– Nucleolus
• Area of condensed DNA
• Where ribosomal subunits
are made
–Subunits exit the nucleus via
nuclear pores
RIBOSOMES
 Ribosomes are particles made
of ribosomal RNA and protein
 Ribosomes carry out protein
synthesis in two locations:
 In the cytosol (free
ribosomes)
 On the outside of the
endoplasmic reticulum or th e
nuclear envelope (bound
ribosomes)
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
• Series of organelles
responsible for:
– Modifying protein chains
into their final form
– Synthesizing of lipids
– Packaging of fully modified
proteins and lipids
into vesicles for export or
use in the cell
 STRUCTURE OF ENDOMEMBRANE
SYSTEM
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– Continuous with the outer
membrane of the nuclear
envelope
– Two forms - smooth and
rough
• Transport vesicles
• Golgi apparatus
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

–There are 2 types of ER:

• Rough ER – has
ribosomes attached
• Smooth ER – no ribosomes
attached
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
• Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum (RER)
• Network of flattened
membrane sacs create a
“maze”
– RER contains enzymes that • Functions RER
recognize and modify • Proteins are modified as they move
proteins
through the RER
• Ribosomes are attached to
• Once modified, the proteins are
the outside of the RER packaged in transport vesicles for
and make it appear rough transport to the Golgi body
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
• Smooth ER (SER)
– Tubular membrane structure
– Continuous with RER
– No ribosomes attached
• Functions of SER
– Lipids are made inside the SER
• fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols..
– Lipids are packaged in transport vesicles
and sent to the Golgi
 GOLGI APPARATUS
• Golgi Apparatus
– Stack of flattened membrane
sacs
• Functions Golgi apparatus
– Completes the processing
substances received
from the ER
– Sorts, tags and packages fully
processed proteins and
lipids in vesicles
GOLGI APPARATUS
 TRANSPORT VESICLES
• Transport Vesicles
–Vesicle = small membrane bound sac
–Transport modified proteins and lipids
from the ER to the Golgi apparatus (and
from Golgi to final destination)
VESICLES
• Vesicles - small membrane bound sacs
– Examples
• Golgi and ER transport vesicles
• Peroxisome
– Where fatty acids are metabolized
– Where hydrogen peroxide is detoxified
• Lysosome
– contains digestive enzymes
– Digests unwanted cell parts and other
wastes
 LYSOSOMES
• The lysosome is an example of an
organelle made at the Golgi
apparatus.
– Golgi packages digestive enzymes in a
vesicle.
The vesicle remains in the cell
and:
• Digests unwanted or damaged cell parts
• Merges with food vacuoles and digest
the contents
LYSOSOMES
PEROXISOMES
 Peroxisomes are specialized
metabolic compartments
bounded by a single membrane
 Peroxisomes produce hydrogen
peroxide and convert it to water
 Oxygen is used to break down
different types of molecules
 VACUOLES
• Vacuoles are membrane
sacs that are
generally larger than
vesicles.
– Examples:
• Food vacuole - formed when
protists bring food into the cell by
endocytosis
• Contractile vacuole – collect
and pump excess water out of
some freshwater protists
Putting it all together…
– DNA directs RNA synthesis RNA exits nucleus through a nuclear
pore ribosome protein is made proteins with proper code
enter RER proteins are modified in RER and lipids are made in
SER  vesicles containing the proteins and lipids bud off from
the ERER vesicles merge with Golgi body  proteins and lipids
enter Golgi  each is fully modified as it passes through layers of
Golgi
 modified products are tagged, sorted and bud off in Golgi
vesicles  Golgi vesicles either merge with the plasma membrane
and release their contents OR remain in the cell and serve a
purpose
The Endomembrane System: A Review
The Endomembrane System: A Review
The Endomembrane System: A Review
Putting it all together…
– DNA directs RNA synthesis RNA exits nucleus through a nuclear
pore ribosome protein is made proteins with proper code
enter RER proteins are modified in RER and lipids are made in
SER  vesicles containing the proteins and lipids bud off from
the ERER vesicles merge with Golgi body  proteins and lipids
enter Golgi  each is fully modified as it passes through layers of
Golgi
 modified products are tagged, sorted and bud off in Golgi
vesicles  Golgi vesicles either merge with the plasma membrane
and release their contents OR remain in the cell and serve a
purpose
 MITOCHONDRIA
• Structure:
– ~1-5 microns
– Two membranes
• Outer membrane
• Inner membrane - Highly folded
– Folds called cristae
– Intermembrane space (or outer
compartment)
– Matrix
• DNA and ribosomes in matrix
 MITOCHONDRIA
• Function – synthesis of ATP
3 major pathways involved in ATP
production
1. Glycolysis - cytoplasm
2. Krebs Cycle - matrix
3. Electron transport system
(ETS)
-
intermembrane space
 CHLOROPLASTS
• Function – site of
photosynthesis
• Structure
– 2 outer
membranes
– Thylakoid
membrane
system
• Stacked
membrane sacs
called
granum
 CYTOSKELETON
• Function
– gives cells internal organization, shape,
and ability to move
• Structure
– Interconnected system of
microtubules,
microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments
(animal only)
• All are proteins
Components of the Cytoskeleton

• Three main types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton:

• Microtubules are the thickest of the three components of the
cytoskeleton
• Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the thinnest
components
• Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a
middle range
MICROTUBULES

• Microtubules – long hollow tubes

made of tubulin proteins
(globular)
– Anchor organelles and act as tracks
for
organelle movement
– Move chromosomes around during
cell
division
• Used to make cilia and flagella
Centrosomes and Centrioles
• In many cells, microtubules grow
out from a centrosome near the
nucleus
• The centrosome is a “microtubule-
organizing center”
• In animal cells, the centrosome has
a pair of centrioles, each with nine
triplets of microtubules arranged in
a ring
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
– Move whole cells or
materials across the
cell surface

– Microtubules wrapped
in an extension of the
plasma membrane
(9 + 2 arrangement of
MT)
Fig. 6-23
Direction of swimming

(a) Motion of flagella

5 µm

Direction of organism’s movement

Power stroke Recovery stroke

(b) Motion of cilia 15 µm

MICROFILAMENTS
• Thinnest
cytoskeletal
elements
(rod-like)
• Enable cells to
change shape
and move
INTERMEDIATE
FILAMENTS
• Intermediate filaments range in
diameter from 8–12 nanometers,
larger than microfilaments but
smaller than microtubules
• They support cell shape and
fix organelles in place
• Intermediate filaments are more
permanent cytoskeleton fixtures
than the other two classes
PLANT CELL STRUCTURE
• Structures found in plant, but
not animal cells
– Chloroplasts
– Central vacuole
– Other plastids/vacuoles –
chromoplast,
amyloplast
– Cell wall
CENTRAL VACUOLE
• Function – storage area for water, sugars, ions, amino
acids, and wastes
–Some central vacuoles serve
specialized functions in plant cells.
• May contain poisons to protect against
predators.
Structure
– Large membrane bound sac t
– Occupies the majority of the volume of
the plan
cell
– Increases cell’s surface area for transport
CELL WALL
• Function – provides structure and
protection
– Never found in animal cells
– Present in plant, bacterial, fungus,
and some protists
• Structure
– Wraps around the plasma membrane
– Made of cellulose and other
polysaccharides
– Connect by plasmodesmata (channels
through the walls)