LECTURE 20

INJECTIVE, SURJECTIVE AND

BIJECTIVE FUNCTION
IDENTITY FUNCTION
CONSTANT FUNCTION

1
 INJECTIVE FUNCTION or
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTION
Let f: X Y be a function. f is injective or one-to-one if, and only if,
 x1, x2 X, if x1  x2 then f(x1)  f(x2)
That is, f is one-to-one if it takes distinct points of the domain to
distinct points of the co-domain.
f

x1 f(x1)

x2 f(x2)

X=domain of f Y=co-domain of f
A one-to-one function separates points. 2
 FUNCTION NOT ONE-TO-ONE

A function f: X Y is not one-to-one iff there exist elements x1 and

x2 in X such that
x1  x2 but f(x1) = f(x2)
That is, if distinct elements x1 and x2 can be found in domain of f
that have the same function value. f

x1
A function that is f(x1)=f(x2)
not one-to-one x2
collapses points
together.
X=domain of f Y=co-domain of f 3
 EXAMPLE
Which of the arrow diagrams define one-to-one functions?
f g

a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
3 3
c 4 c 4
X Y X Y

SOLUTION
f is clearly one-to-one function, because no two different elements of
X are mapped onto the same element of Y.
g is not one-to-one because the elements a and c are mapped onto the
same element 2 of Y. 4
 ALTERNATIVE DEFINITION FOR
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTION

A function f: X Y is one-to-one iff

 x1, x2 X, if x1  x2 then f(x1)  f(x2)
The equivalent contra-positive statement for this implication is
 x1, x2 X, if f(x1) = f(x2), then x1 = x2
REMARK
f: X Y is not one-to-one iff
 x1, x2 X with f(x1) = f(x2) but x1  x2
5
 EXAMPLE
Define f: R R by the rule
f(x) = 4x - 1 for all x R
Is f one-to-one? Prove or give a counter example.
SOLUTION:
Let x1, x2 R such that
f(x1) = f(x2)
 4x1 - 1 = 4 x2 – 1 (by definition of f)
 4 x1 = 4 x2 (adding 1 to both sides)
 x1 = x2 (dividing both sides by 4)
Thus we have shown that if f(x1) = f(x2) then x1=x2 6
 EXAMPLE
Define g : Z  Z by the rule g(n)=n2 for all n Z Is
g one-to-one? Prove or give a counter example.
SOLUTION
Let n1, n2 Z and suppose
g(n1) = g(n2)
 n12 = n12 (by definition of g)
 n1 =  n2
Thus g(n1) = g(n2) does not imply n1 = n2 always.
As a counter example, let n1 = 2 and n2 = -2. Then
g(n1) = g(2) = 22 = 4 and also
7
g(n2) = g(-2) = (-2)2 = 4
 EXERCISE
Find all one-to-one functions from X = {a,b} to Y = {u,v}
SOLUTION
There are two one-to-one functions from X to Y defined by the arrow
diagrams.

f g

a u a u

b v b v

X Y X Y
8
 EXERCISE
How many one-to-one functions are there from a set with three
elements to a set with four elements.
SOLUTION
Let X = {x1,x2, x3} and Y = {y1,y2,y3,y4}

x1 may be mapped to any of the 4

.y1
x1. elements of Y. Then x2 may be mapped to
.y2
x2. any of the remaining 3 elements of Y &
.y3 finally x3 may be mapped to any of the
x3. .y4 remaining 2 elements of Y.
X Y Hence, total no. of one-to-one functions
from X to Y are
4  3  2 = 24 9
 EXERCISE
How many one-to-one functions are there from a set with three
elements to a set with two elements.
SOLUTION
Let X = {x1, x2, x3} and Y = {y1, y2}

x1.
.y1
x2.
.y2
x3.

X Y
Two elements in X could be mapped to the two elements in Y separately.
But there is no new element in Y to which the third element in X could
be mapped. Accordingly there is no one-to-one function from a set with
three elements to a set with two elements. 10
 GRAPH OF ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTION
A graph of a function f is one-to-one iff every horizontal line
intersects the graph in at most one point.
EXAMPLE
y y=x2
y

y x (-2,4) (2,4)

x
0 -2 0 +2 x
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTION NOT ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTION
11
from R+ to R From R to R +
 SURJECTIVE FUNCTION or
ONTO FUNCTION
Let f: XY be a function. f is surjective or onto if, and only if,
 y  Y,  x X such that f(x) = y.
That is, f is onto if every element of its co-domain is the image of
some element(s) of its domain.i.e., co-domain of f = range of f
f
.
. .
. .
x. . y = f(x)
.

X=domain of f Y=co-domain of f
Each element y in Y equals f(x) for at least one x in X. 12
 FUNCTION NOT ONTO

A function f:XY is not onto iff there exists y Y such that

 x X, f(x)y.
That is, there is some element in Y that is not the image of any
element in X.
f
.
. .
. .
. .

X=domain of f Y=co-domain of f

13
 EXAMPLE
Which of the arrow diagrams define onto functions?
f g

a 1 a 1
b
b 2 2
c
c .3 d 3

X Y X Y
SOLUTION
f is not onto because 3  f(x) for any x in X.
g is clearly onto because each element of Y equals g(x) for some x
in X. 1 = g(c); 2 = g(d); 3 = g(a) = g(b) 14
 EXAMPLE
Define f: R R by the rule
f(x) = 4x-1 for all x R
Is f onto? Prove or give a counter example.
SOLUTION
Let y R. We search for an x  R such that
f(x) = y
or 4x-1 = y (by definition of f)
y 1
Solving it for x, we find x  4  R
y 1
Hence for y R, there exists x   R such that
4

15
  y 1
f ( x)  f  
 4 

 y 1
 4.   1  ( y  1)  1  y
 4 

Hence f is onto.

16
 EXAMPLE
Define h: Z Z by the rule
h(n) = 4n - 1 for all n  Z
Is h onto? Prove or give a counter example.
SOLUTION
Let m Z. We search for an n Z such that
h(n) = m.
or 4n - 1 = m (by definition of h)
m 1
Solving it for n, we find n  4
m 1
But is not always an integer for all m Z.
4

17
As a counter example, let m = 0 Z, then
h(n) = 0
 4n-1 = 0
 4n = 1
1
 n  z
4
Hence there is no integer n for which h(n) = 0.
Accordingly, h is not onto.

18
 GRAPH OF ONTO FUNCTION
A graph of a function f is onto iff every horizontal line intersects
the graph in at least one point.
EXAMPLE

y y=ex y y = |x|

O x O x

ONTO FUNCTION NOT ONTO FUNCTION FROM

from R to R+ R to R 19
 EXERCISE
Let X = {1,5,9} and Y = {3,4,7}
Define g: X Y by specifying that
g(1) = 7, g(5) = 3, g(9) = 4
Is g one-to-one? Is g onto?
SOLUTION
g is one-to-one because each of the three elements of X are mapped
to a different elements of Y by g.
g(1)  g(5), g(1)  g(a), g(5)  g(a)
g is onto as well, because each of the three elements of co-domain Y
of g is the image of some element of the domain of g.
3 = g(5), 4 = g(9), 7 = g(1) 20
 EXERCISE
Define f: P({a,b,c})Z as follows:
for all AP ({a,b,c}), f(A)= the number of elements in A.
a. Is f one-to-one? Justify.
b. Is f onto? Justify.
SOLUTION
a. f is not one-to-one because
f({a}) = 1 and f({b}) = 1 but {a} {b}
b. f is not onto because, there is no element of P({a,b,c})
that is mapped to 4 Z.
21
 EXERCISE
Determine if each of the functions is injective or surjective.
a. f: Z Z+ define as f(x) = |x|
b. g: Z+  Z+  Z+ defined as g(x) = (x,x+1)
SOLUTION
a. f is not injective, because
f(1) = |1| = 1 and f(-1) = |-1| = 1
i.e., f(1) = f(-1) but 1  -1
f is onto, because for every aZ+, there exist –a and +a in Z
such that
f(-a) = |-a| = a
and f(a) = |a| = a 22
b. g: Z+  Z+  Z+ defined as g(x) = (x,x+1)
Let g(x1) = g(x2) for x1, x2 Z+
 (x1, x1 +1) = (x2, x2+1)(by definition of g)
 x1 = x2 and x1 + 1 = x2 + 1 (by equality of ordered
pairs)
 x1 = x2
Thus if g(x1) = g(x2) then x1 = x2
Hence g is one-to-one.
g is not onto because (1,1) Z+Z+ is not the image of any element
of Z+.
23
 BIJECTIVE FUNCTION or
ONE-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE
A function f: XY that is both one-to-one (injective) and onto
(surjective) is called a bijective function or a one-to-one
correspondence.
EXAMPLE
The function f: XY defined by the arrow diagram is both one-
to-one and onto; hence a bijective function.
f

a 1
b 2
c .3

X Y 24
 EXERCISE
Let f: R R be defined by the rule f(x) = x3.
Show that f is a bijection.
SOLUTION
f is one-to-one
Let f(x1) = f(x2) for x1, x2R
 x13 = x23
 x13 - x23 = 0
 (x1 -x2) (x12 + x1x2 + x22) = 0
 x1 - x1 = 0 or x12 + x1x2 + x22=0
 x1 = x2 (the second equation gives no real solution)
25
f is onto
Let y R. We search for a x R such that
f(x)=y
 x3 = y (by definition of f)
or x = (y)1/3
Hence for y R, there exists x = (y)1/3  R such that
f(x) = f((y)1/3)
= ((y)1/3)3 = y
Accordingly f is onto.
Thus, f is a bijection.
26
 GRAPH OF BIJECTIVE FUNCTION
A graph of a function f is bijective iff every horizontal line
intersects the graph at exactly one point.

y=x+5
y y=x3 y

(0,5)

0 x (5,0) O(0,0)

BIJECTIVE FUNCTION BIJECTIVE FUNCTION

from R to R from R to R
27
 IDENTITY FUNCTION ON A SET
Given a set X, define a function ix from X to X by
ix(x) = x from all x X
The function ix is called the identity function on X because it
sends each element of X to itself.
EXAMPLE
Let X = {1,2,3,4}. The identity function ix on X is represented by
ix
the arrow diagram
1 1
2 2
3 3
4
4
28
X Y
 EXERCISE
Let X be a non-empty set. Prove that the identity function on X is
bijective.
SOLUTION
Let ix: X X be the identity function defined as ix(x) = x X
1. ix is injective (one-to-one)
Let ix(x1) = ix(x2) for x1, x2 X
 x1 = x2 (by definition of ix) Hence ix
is one-to-one.
2. ix is surjective (onto)
Let y X (co-domain of ix)
Then there exists y X (domain of ix) such that ix (y) = y Hence ix
is onto. Thus, ix being
29
injective and surjective is bijective.
 CONSTANT FUNCTION
A function f:XY is a constant function if it maps (sends) all
elements of X to one element of Y.
i.e.  x X, f(x) = c, for some c  Y
EXAMPLE
The function f defined by the arrow diagram is constant.
f
X Y
1 .7
2
.8
3
.9
4
REMARK
1. A constant function is one-to-one iff its domain is a singleton.
30
2. A constant function is onto iff its co-domain is a singleton.
 EQUALITY OF FUNCTIONS
INVERSE FUNCTION
COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

31
 EQUALITY OF FUNCTIONS
Suppose f and g are functions from X to Y. Then f equals g, written
f = g, if, and only if,
f(x)=g(x) for all x X
EXAMPLE
Define f: R R and g: RR by formulas:
f(x) = |x| for all x R
g(x)= x 2 for all x R
Since the absolute value of a real number equals to square root of its
square i.e., |x| = x 2 for all x R
Therefore f(x) = g(x) for all x R
Hence f = g
32
 EXERCISE
Define functions f and g from R to R by formulas:
2 x3  2 x
f(x) = 2x and g ( x)  2 for all x R
x 1
Show that f = g
SOLUTION

2 x3  2 x
g ( x)  2
x 1
2 x( x 2  1)

( x 2  1)
 2x [x 2  1  0]
 f ( x) for all x  R
Accordingly f = g
33
 INVERSE OF A FUNCTION
g

1. .a a. .1
2. .b b. .2
3. .c c. .3

X Y Y X

FUNCTION INVERSE

Remark: Inverse of a function may not be a function.

34
 f

.a a.
1. .1
.b b.
2. .2
.c c.
3. .3
d d.
X Z Z X

INJECTIVE FUNCTION INVERSE

Inverse of an injective function may not be a function.

35
 h

1. .1
.a a.
2. .2
.b b.
3. .3

X Y Y X

SURJECTIVE FUNCTION INVERSE

Inverse of a surjective function may not be a function.

36
 p

1. .a a. .1
2. .b b. .2
3. .c c. .3

X Y Y X

BIJECTIVE FUNCTION INVERSE

Inverse of an bijective function is always a function.

37
 INVERSE FUNCTION
Suppose f:XY is a bijective function. Then the inverse function
f-1: YX is defined as:
 yY, f-1(y) = x  y = f(x)
That is, f-1 sends each element of Y back to the element of X that it
came from under f.
f

x=f-1(y) f(x)=y

f-1
X=domain of f Y=co-domain of f
REMARK: A function whose inverse function exists is
called an invertible function.
38
 INVERSE FUNCTION FROM AN
ARROW DIAGRAM
Let the bijection f:XY be defined by the arrow diagram.
f

1. .6

2. .7

3 .8

4. .9
X Y

39
The inverse function f-1:YX is represented by the arrow diagram.

f-1

1. .6

2. .7

3. .8

4. .9
X Y

40
 INVERSE FUNCTION FROM A
FORMULA
Let f:RR be defined by the formula
f(x) = 4x-1 xR
Then f is bijective, therefore f-1 exists.
By definition of f-1, f-1(y) = x  f(x)=y
Now solving f(x) = y for x
 4x-1 = y (by definition of f)
 4x = y + 1
 y 1
x
Hence, f-1(y) = y  1 4which defines f-1 : RR.
41
4
 WORKING RULE TO FIND INVERSE
FUNCTION

Let f: X Y be a one-to-one correspondence defined by the

formula f(x)=y.
1. Solve the equation f(x) = y for x in terms of y.
2. f-1(y) equals the right hand side of the equation found in
step 1.

42
 EXAMPLE
Let a function f be defined on a set of real numbers as
x 1
f ( x)  for all real numbers x 1.
x 1

1. Show that f is a bijective function on R-{1}.

2. Find the inverse function f-1
SOLUTION
1.a f is injective
Let x1, x2 R-{1} and suppose
f(x1) = f(x2)
x1  1 x2  1
  (by definition of f)
x1  1 x2  1 43
 (x1 + 1) (x2 - 1) = (x2 + 1) (x1 - 1)
 x1x2 - x1 + x2 - 1 = x1x2 - x2 + x1 - 1
 - x 1 + x2 = - x 2 + x1
 x2 + x2 = x1 + x1
 2 x2 = 2 x1
 x2 = x1
Hence f is injective.

44
b. f is surjective
Let y  R - {1}. We look for an x R - {1}such that
f(x) = y
x 1
or y
x 1
 x + 1= y(x-1)
 1+ y = xy - x
 1 + y = x(y-1)
y 1
 x=  R  {1}
y 1 y 1
 R  {1}
Thus for each y  R - {1}, there exists x = y  1
 y 1
such that f ( x)  f    y
 y 1
Accordingly f is surjective 45
2. inverse function of f
The given function f is defined by the rule
x 1
f ( x)  y (say)
x 1
 x + 1 = y (x-1)
 x + 1 = yx-y
 y + 1 = yx-x
 y + 1 = x(y-1)
y 1
 x 
y 1
y 1
Hence f (y) =
-1 ; y 1
y 1 46
 EXERCISE
Let f:RR be defined by
f(x) = x3 + 5
Show that f is one-to-one and onto. Find a formula that defines the
inverse function f-1.
SOLUTION
1. f is one-to-one
Let f(x1) = f(x2) for x1, x2 R
 x13 + 5 = x23 + 5 (by definition of f)
 x13 = x23 (subtracting 5 on both sides)
 x1 = x2
47
Hence f is one-to-one.
2. f is onto
Let y R. We search for an x R such that f(x) = y.
 x3 + 5 = y (by definition of f)
 x3 = y - 5
 x= 3 y 5
Thus for each y R, there exists x = 3 y  5 R
such that
f ( x)  f  3 y 5 
 
3 
y 5 5
3
(by definition of f)
 ( y  5)  5  y
Hence f is onto.
48
3. formula for f-1
f is defined by y = f(x) = x3 + 5
 y-5 = x3
or x= 3 y 5
Hence f-1(y) = 3 y 5
which defines the inverse function

49
 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS
Let f: X Y and g: Y Z be functions with the property that
the range of f is a subset of the domain of g i.e. f(X)Y.
Define a new function gof:X Z as follows:
(gof)(x) = g(f(x)) for all xX
The function gof is called the composition of f and g.

X Y Z
f g
Y
f(x) g(f(x))
x
=(gof)(x)

gof 50
 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS
DEFINED BY ARROW DIAGRAMS
Let X = {1,2,3},Y={a,b,c,d},Y={a,b,c,d,e} and Z ={x,y,z}.
Define functions f:XY and g:X Z by the arrow diagrams:

f g
X Y Z
Y
1 a x
2 b y
3 c z
d
e

51
Then gof f: X Z is represented by the arrow diagram.

gof
X Z

1 x
2 y
3 z

52
 EXERCISE
Let A = {1,2,3,4,5} and let the functions f:A A and g:AA be
defined by:
f(1)=3, f(2)=5, f(3)=3, f(4)=1, f(5)=2
g(1)=4, g(2)=1, g(3)=1, g(4)=2, g(5)=3
Find the composition functions fog and gof.
SOLUTION
We are the definition of the composition of functions and compute:
(fog) (1) = f(g(1)) = f(4) = 1
(fog) (2) = f(g(2)) = f(1) = 3
(fog) (3) = f(g(3)) = f(1) = 3
(fog) (4) = f(g(4)) = f(2) = 5
53

(fog) (5) = f(g(5)) = f(3) = 3

Also
(gof) (1) = g(f(1)) = g(3) = 1
(gof) (2) = g(f(2)) = g(5) = 3
(gof) (3) = g(f(3)) = g(3) = 1
(gof) (4) = g(f(4)) = g(1) = 4
(gof) (5) = g(f(5)) = g(2) = 1

REMARK: The functions fog and gof are not equal.

54
 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS
DEFINED BY FORMULAS
Let f: Z Z and g:Z  Z be defined by
f(n) = n+1 for nZ
and g(n) = n2 for nZ
a. Find the compositions gof and fog.
b. Is gof = fog?
SOLUTION
a. By definition of the composition of functions
(gof) (n) = g(f(n)) = g(n+1) = (n+1)2 for all n Z
and
(fog) (n) = f(g(n)) = f(n2) = n2+1 for all n Z 55
b. Two functions from one set to another are equal if, and only
if, they take the same values.
In this case,
(gof)(1) = (1 + 1)2 = 4where as
(fog)(1) = 12 + 1 = 2
Thus fog  gof

REMARK: The composition of functions is not a commutative

operation.

56
 COMPOSITION WITH THE
IDENTITY FUNCTION
Let X = {a,b,c,d} and Y={u,v,w} and suppose f:XY be
defined by:
f(a) = u, f(b) = v, f(c) = v, f(d) = u
Find foix and iyof, where ix and iy are identity functions on X
and Y respectively.
SOLUTION
The values of foix on X are obtained as:
(foix) (a) = f(ix(a)) = f(a) = u
(foix) (b) = f(ix(b)) = f(b) = v
(foix) (c) = f(ix(c)) = f(c) = v 57
For all elements x in X (foix)(x) = f(x)
so that foix = f
The values of iyof on X are obtained as:
(iyof)(a)=iy(f(a)) = iy(u) = u
(iyof)(b)=iy(f(b)) = iy(v) = v
(iyof)(c)=iy(f(c)) = iy(v) = v
(iyof)(d)=iy(f(d)) = iy(u) = u
For all elements x in X (iyof)(x) = f(x)
so that iyof = f
58
 COMPOSING A FUNCTION WITH
ITS INVERSE
Let X = {a,b,c} and Y= {x,y,z}
Define f:XY by the arrow diagram.

f
X Y
i.e. f(a) = z
a x
b y f(b) = x
c z f(c) = y

Then f is one-to-one and onto. So f-1 exists and is

represented by the arrow diagram
59
 f-1
Y X
i.e. f-1(x) = b
x a f-1(y) = c
y b
c f-1(z) = a
z

60
f-1of is found by following the arrows from X to Y by f and back
to X by f-1.

f f-1
X Y X

a x a
b y b
c z c

Thus,
(f-1of)(a) = f-1(f(a)) = f-1 (z) = a
(f-1of)(b) = f-1(f(b)) = f-1 (x) = b and
(f-1of)(c) = f-1(f(c)) = f-1 (y) = c 61
REMARK 1
f-1of : X X sends each element of X to itself. So by definition
of identity function on X
f-1of = ix
Similarly, the composition of f and f-1 sends each element of Y to
itself. Accordingly
fof-1 = iy
REMARK2
The function f:X Y and g:Y X are inverses of each other iff
gof = ix and fog = iy

62
 EXERCISE

Let f: R R and g:R R be defined by

f(x) = 3x + 2 for all xR
x2
and g(x) = for all xR
3
Show that f and g are inverse of each other.
SOLUTION
f and g are inverse of each other iff their composition gives the
identity function.
Now for all x R

63
 ( gof )( x)  g ( f ( x))
 g (3 x  2) (by definition of f)
(3 x  2)  2
 (by definition of g)
3
3x
 x
3
Also
( fog )( x)  f ( g ( x))
 g (3 x  2) (by definition of g)
(3 x  2)  2
 (by definition of f)
3
 ( x  2)  2
x
Thus (gof)(x) = x = (fog)(x)
Hence gof and fog are identity functions. Accordingly f and g
are inverse of each other. 64
THEOREMS ON BIJECTIVE
FUNCTIONS
ALGEBRA OF FUNCTIONS
CARDINILITY
IMAGE SET AND
INVERSE IMAGE SET
65
 THEOREM
If f: XY and g: Y  Z are both one-to-one functions, then
gof: X  Z is one-to-one.
PROOF
Suppose f: X Y and g: Y Z are both one-to-one functions.
Suppose x1, x2 X such that
(gof) (x1) = (gof) (x2)
 g(f(x1)) = g(f(x2)) (definition of
composition)
Since g is one-to-one, therefore
f(x1) = f(x2)
And since f is one-to-one, therefore
x1 = x2
66
Thus, we have shown that if (gof) (x1) = (gof)(x2) then x1 = x2
 THEOREM
If f: XY and g: Y  Z are both onto functions, then gof:X  Z
is onto.
PROOF
Suppose f: X Y and g: Y Z are both onto functions. We must
show that gof: X Z is onto.
Let zZ
Since g:Y Z is onto, so for zZ, there exists yY such that
g(y)=z.
Further, since f: X Y is onto, so for yY, there exists xX such
that f(x) = y.
Hence, there exists an element x in X such that
(gof) (x) = g(f(x)) = g(y) = z
Thus, gof: X Z is onto. 67
 THEOREM
If f: W X, g:X Y, and h:Y Z are functions, then
(hog)of = ho(gof)
PROOF
The two functions are equal if they assign the same image to each
element in the domain, that is,
((hof)of)(x) = (ho(gof)) (x) for every x W
Computing
((hog)of)(x) = (hog)(f(x)) = h(g(f(x)))
and (ho(gof)) (x) = h ((gof)(x)) = h (g(f(x)))
Hence (hog)of = ho(gof)
REMARK: The composition of functions is associative. 68
 EXERCISE

Suppose f:XY and g:YZ are both one-to-one and onto. Prove
that (gof)-1 exists and that
(gof)-1 = f-1og-1
SOLUTION
Suppose f: X Y and g:Y Z are bijective functions,
then their composition gof: X Z is also bijective. Hence (gof)-1:
Z X exists.
Next, to establish (gof)-1 = f-1og-1, we show that
(f-1og-1)o(gof) = ix and (gof)o(f-1og-1) = iz

69
Now consider
(f-1og-1)o(gof) = f-1o(g-1o(gof)) (associative law for o)
= f-1o((g-1og)of) (associative law for o)
= f-1o(iyof) (g-1og = iy)
= f-1of (iyof = f)
= ix (f:XY)
Also
(gof)o(f-1og-1) = go(fo(f-1og-1)) (associative law for o)
= go((fof-1)og-1) (associative law for o)
= go(iyog-1) (fof-1 = iy)
= gog-1 (iyog-1 = g-1)
= iz (g:YZ)
70
-1 -1 -1
 REAL-VALUED FUNCTIONS
Let X be any set and R be the set of real numbers. A function
f:XR that assigns to each xX a real number f(x) R is called
a real-valued function.
If f: R R, then f is called a real-valued function of a real
variable.
EXAMPLE
1. f: R+ R defined by f(x) = log x is a real valued
function.
2. g:R R defined by g(x) = ex is a real valued function of
a real variable.

71
 OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS
SUM OF FUNCTIONS
Let f and g be real valued functions with the same domain X. That
is f:X R and g:X R. The sum of f and g denoted f+g is a real
valued function with the same domain X i.e. f+g: X R defined
by
(f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)  xX
EXAMPLE
Let f(x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x + 2 defines functions f and g from R
to R.
Then (f+g) (x) = f(x) + g(x)
= (x2 + 1) + (x + 2)
= x2 + x + 3 xR
72
which defines the sum functions f+g: X R
 DIFFERENCE OF FUNCTIONS
Let f: X R and g:X R be real valued functions. The difference
of f and g denoted f-g is a function from X to R defined by
(f-g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)  xX
EXAMPLE
Let f(x) = x2 + 1 and g(x)=x+2
define functions f and g from R to R.
Then (f-g) (x) = f(x) - g(x)
= (x2 + 1) - (x + 2)
= x2 - x - 1 xR
which defines the difference function f-g: X R
73
 PRODUCT OF FUNCTIONS
Let f: X R and g:X R be real valued functions. The product of
f and g denoted f.g or simply fg is a function from X to R defined
by
(f . g)(x) = f(x) . g(x)  xX
EXAMPLE
Let f(x) = x2 + 1 and g(x)=x+2
define functions f and g from R to R.
Then (f . g) (x) = f(x) . g(x)
= (x2 + 1) . (x + 2)
= x3 + 2x2 + x + 2 xR
which defines the product function f . g: X R 74
 QUOTIENT OF FUNCTIONS
Let f:XR and g: X R be real valued functions. The quotient of
f
f by g denoted is a function from X to R defined by
g
f f ( x)
 ( x) 
g g ( x)
EXAMPLE
Let f(x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x + 2 defines functions f and g from
R to R.
f f ( x)
 ( x)  x  X & g ( x)  0
Then g g ( x)

x2 1
 x  X x-2
x2
f
which defines the quotient function : X R. 75
g
 SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
Let f:X R be a real valued function and c is a non-zero number.
Then the scalar multiplication of f is a function cf: R R
defined by
(cf)(x) = cf(x) xX
EXAMPLE
Let f(x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x+2 defines functions f and g from R
to R.
Then (3f - 2g)(x) = (3f)(x) - (2g)(x)
= 3  f(x) - 2  g(x)
= 3(x2+1) - 2 (x+2)
76
= 3x2 - 2x-1 xX
 EXERCISE
If f:R R and g:R  R are both one-to-one, is f+g also one-to-one?
Prove or give a counter example.
SOLUTION
f+g is not one-to-one
As a counter example; define f:R R and g: R R by
f(x) = x and g(x) = -x xR
Then obviously both f and g are one-to-one
Now
(f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) = x + (-x) = 0 xR
Clearly f+g is not one-to-one because
(f+g)(1) = 0 and (f+g) (2) = 0 but 12 77
 EXERCISE
If f:RR and g:R R are both onto, is f+g also onto? Prove or
give a counter example.
SOLUTION
f+g is not onto.
As a counter example, define f:R R and g:R R by
f(x) = x and g(x) = - x xR
Then obviously both f and g are onto.
Now (f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
= x + (-x)
= 0 xR
Clearly f+g is not onto because only 0R has its pre-image in
R and no non-zero element of co-domain R is the image of any78
element of R.
 EXERCISE
Let f:R R be a function and c( 0)R.
1. If f is one-to-one, is cf also one-to-one? Justify.
2. If f is onto, is cf also onto? Justify.
SOLUTION
1. Suppose f:R R is one-to-one and c( 0)R
Let (cf)(x1) = (cf)(x2) for x1, x2  R
 cf (x1) = cf (x2) (by definition of cf)
 f(x1) = f(x2) (dividing by c0)
Since f is one-to-one, this implies
x1 = x2 79
2. Suppose f:R R is onto and c(0) R.
Let y R. We search for an x R such that
(cf) (x) = y (1)
 cf(x) = y (by definition of cf)
y
 f(x) = c (dividing by c0)

y
Since f: R R is onto, so for R, there exists some xR
c
such that the above equation is true; and this leads back to
equation (1).
Accordingly cf: R R is also onto.

80
 EXERCISE
The real-valued function 0x:X R which is defined by
0x(x) = 0 for all x X
is called the zero function (on X).
Prove that for any function f: X R
1. f + 0x = f 2. f 0x = 0x
SOLUTION
1. Since (f + 0x)(x) = f(x) + 0x(x)
= f(x) + 0
= f(x) xX
Hence f+0x = f 81
2. Since (f  0x)(x) = f(x)  0x(x)
= f(x)  0
= 0
= 0x(x) xX
Hence f  0x = 0x

82
 EXERCISE
Given a set S and a subset A, the characteristics function of A,
denoted A, is the function defined from S to the set {0,1}
defined as

1 if x  A
A(x) = 
0 if x  A

Show that for all subsets A and B of S

1. AB = A  B
2. AB = A + B - A  B
3. A(x) = 1 -  A(x)
83
 SOLUTION
1. Prove that AB = A  B
Let x  AB; therefore x A and x B. Then
AB(x) = 1; A(x)=1; B(x)=1
Hence AB(x) = 1 = (1) (1) = A (x) B(x)
= (A  B ) (x)
Next, let y (AB);  y A  B ;
y A or y B
Now y (AB)  (AB)(y) = 0
and y A or y B  A(y) = 0 or B(y) = 0
Thus AB(y) = 0 = A (y) B (y)
84
Hence, AB and A  B assign the same number to each
element x in S, so by definition
AB = A B

85
 SOLUTION

2. Prove that AB = A + B - A  B

Let xAB then x A or x B
Now  AB (x) = 1 and  A (x) = 1 or  B (x) = 1
Three cases arise depending upon which of  A(x) or  B(x) is 1.
CASE-I ( A(x)) = 1 &  B(x) = 1)
Now  A (x) + B (x) -  A (x)  B (x)
= 1 + 1 - (1) (1)
= 1
=  AB (x) 86
CASE-II ( A (x) = 1;  B (x) = 0)
Now  A (x) +  B (x) - A (x) B (x)
= 1 + 0 - (1) (0)
=1
=  AB (x)
CASE III ( A (x) = 0;  B (x) = 1)
Now  A (x) +  B (x) - A (x) B (x)
= 0 + 1 + (0) (1)
=1
=  AB (x)
Thus in all cases 87
Next let yAB. Then y(AB)
 yAB (DeMorgan’s Law)
 yA and yB
Thus  AB(y) = 0;  A (y) = 0; B (y) = 0
Consider A (y) +  B (y) - A (y) B (y)
=0+0-0
=0
=  AB(y)
Hence for all elements of S
 AB= A + B- A  B
88
3. Prove that A(x) = 1 -  A(x)
Let xA. Then x A and so
A(x) = 1 and A(x) = 0
 A(x) = 1 = 1 - 0 = 1 - A(x) (1)
Also if yA, then yA and so
A(y) = 0 and A(y) = 1
 A(y) = 0 = 1 - 1 = 1 - A(y) (2)
By (1) and (2), for all elements of S
A(x) = 1 - A(x)

89
 EXERCISE
If F, G and H are functions from A = {1,2,3} to A what must be true
if.
1. F is reflexive? 2.G is symmetric?
3. H is transitive, onto function?
SOLUTION
1. F is reflexive iff every element of A is related to itself
i.e.aFa aA. Also F is a function from A to A, so each element of
A is related to a unique (one and only one) element of A. Hence, F
maps each element of A to itself so that F is an identity function.

1 1
2 2
3 3
90
A A
2. G is symmetric iff
if aGb then bGa a,bA
Now, in the present case.

1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3

A A A A

i.e. G is both one-to-one and onto (a bijective function)

91
3. H is transitive iff
if aHb and bHc then aHc. a,b,cA.
In our case

1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3

A A A A

H is transitive, onto function if and only if it is an identity

function.

92
 FINITE AND INFINITE SETS
FINITE SET:
A set is called finite if, and only if, it is the empty set or there
is one-to-one correspondence from {1,2,3,,n} to it, where n
is a positive integer.
INFINITE SET
A non empty set that cannot be put into one-to-one
correspondence with {1,2,3,…,n}, for any positive integer n,
is called infinite set.

93
 CARDINALITY
Let A and B be any sets. A has the same cardinality as B if,
and only if, there is a one-to-one correspondence from A to B.
COUNTABLE SET
A set is countably infinite if, and only if, it has the same
cardinality as the set of positive integers Z+.
A set is called countable if, and only if, it is finite or
countably infinite.
A set that is not countable is called uncountable.

94
 EXAMPLE
The set Z of all integers is countable.
SOLUTION
We find a function from the set of positive integers Z+ to Z that is
one-to-one and onto.
Define f: Z+ Z by
 n
 2 if n is an even positive integer
f(n) =  n-1
 if n is an odd positive integer
 2

Then f clearly maps distinct elements of Z+ to distinct integers.

Moreover, every integer m is the image of some positive integer
under f. Thus f is bijective and so the set Z of all integers is 95
countable (countably infinite)
 EXERCISE
Show that the set 2Z of all even integers is countable.
SOLUTION
Consider the function h from Z to 2Z defined as follows
h(n) = 2n for all nZ
Then clearly h is one-to-one. For if
h(n1) = h(n2) then
2n1 = 2n2 (by definition of h)
 n1 = n2
Also every even integer 2n is the image of integer n under h.
Hence h is onto as well. Thus h:Z 2Z is bijective. Since Z is
96
countable, it follows that 2Z is countable.
 IMAGE OF A SET
Let f : X Y be a function and A  X.
The image of A under f is denoted and defined as:
f(A) = {yY | y = f(x), for some x in A}
EXAMPLE
Let f: X Y be defined by the arrow diagram
f

1 .a Let A = {1,2}and B = {2,3}

2 then
b
3 c f(A)={b}and f(B) = {b,c}
4

X Y 97
 INVERSE IMAGE OF A SET
Let f: X Y be a function and C  Y.
The inverse image of C under f is denoted and defined as:
f-1(C)={x X | f(x) C}
EXAMPLE
Let f: X Y be defined by the arrow diagram.
f
X Y
1 a Let C = {a},D = {b,c},E = {d} then
2 b f-1(C)={1,2}, f-1(D) = {3,4}, and f-
3 c 1
(E) =
4 d
98
 SOME RESULTS
Let f: X Y is a function. Let A and B be subsets of X and C and
D be subsets of Y.
1. if A B then f(A)  f(B)
2. f(AB) = f(A) f(B)
3. f(AB)  f(A)  f(B)
4. f(A-B)  f(A) - f(B)
5. if C  D, then f-1(C)  f-1(D)
6. f-1(CD) = f-1(C)  f-1(D)
7. f-1(CD) = f-1(C) f-1(D)
8. f-1(C-D) = f-1 (C) - f-1 (D)
99