CAPE UNIT 1-

ORBITALS
LOWER 6TH FORM
 ORBITALS AND THE THREE QUANTUM
NUMBERS
•Orbitals
1. The Bohr atomic model was one dimensional and used one quantum number which is the principal
quantum number which explained the emission spectrum of hydrogen but failed to explain the spectra
of more complex atoms.
2. With the development of Schroedinger’s wave equation in 1926 which assumes wave-particle duality of
electrons, the position of an electron is described in terms of probability density which is the volume of
space in which the electron is likely to be found.
3. This region where there is a high probability of finding an electron is called an orbital.
4. Schroedinger described an atomic model with electrons in three dimensions (length, height, width) and
with three quantum numbers. The three quantum numbers are the principal (n), angular (l) and
magnetic (m) quantum numbers.
5. These quantum numbers describe the size, shape, and orientation in space of the orbitals on an atom.
Energy Level No. of electrons

n=1 2
•The Principal Quantum number (n)
n= 2 8 •This describes the energy level of the electron.
It is the same as that used in Bohr’s Model. The
maximum number of electrons in n can be
n=3 18 found using 2n2.
•n-Energy level

n=4 32
•The Angular Quantum Number (l)
•This describes the sublevels in, n (in the
principal quantum number) and the
shape of the orbitals. The sublevels are
given letter designations s, p, d and f.
Each energy level has n sublevels.
•n=1 has 1 sublevel named 1s
•n=2 has 2 sublevels named 2s and 2p
•n=3 has 3 sublevels named 3s, 3p, 3d
•n=4 has 4 sublevels named 4s, 4p, 4d
and 4f
•The Magnetic Quantum Number (m)
•This describes the number of orbitals within
a sublevel.
•S has 1 orbital and can hold up to 2
electrons
•P has 3 orbitals and can hold up to 6
electrons
•D has 5 orbitals can hold up to 10 electrons
•f has 7 orbitals and can hold up to 14
electrons.
•A fourth quantum number s is
used to describe the spin of
electron. According to the
Pauli Exclusion Principle no
more than two electrons can
occupy an orbital and two
electrons occupying the same
orbital must have opposite
spins therefore no two
electrons in an atom can have
the same four quantum
numbers.
•The S Orbital
• An orbital is the volume of space around the
nucleus in which there is a high probability of
finding an electron of a given energy.
• Each energy level has one s orbital which can
hold a maximum of 2 electrons.
• The shape of the s orbital is spherical.
• The 1s orbital has a zero-electron density or
node at the centre of the nucleus.
• The electron density increases as the distance
from the nucleus increases until it reaches a
maximum then it steadily falls but does not
reach zero.
• Therefore, the probability of finding an
electron is the same in all directions.
• The 2s orbital is similar in shape to the 1s
however the electron density is high closer to
the nucleus then falls to a node and then
increases to a maximum further from the
nucleus.
•P Orbitals
• Each energy level has three
degenerate p orbitals (p
orbitals of the same of the
same energy level).
• Each p orbital is shaped like a
dumb-bell and is at right
angles to each other. A node
exists between each lobe of
the orbital. The three 2p
orbitals are referred to as the
2px, 2py, and 2pz orbitals.
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
•Electron Configurations
•The relative energies of atomic orbitals
•There is no difference between the energies of the different sublevels within an energy level for an atom that contains one electron.
•However, once an atom contains more than one electron, the energy changes in the different sublevels. The s orbital will have a
slightly lower energy than the p orbitals at the same energy level, so the s orbital always fill with electrons before the corresponding
p orbitals.
•
•Within a given energy level, the s orbital will have the lowest energy then the p,d,f.
•Relative energies of orbitals are s<p<d<f
•
•There is an irregularity in the position of the 3d and 4s orbitals
•The 3d orbitals have slightly more energy than the 4s therefore the 4s orbital fills then 3d orbitals followed by the 4p orbitals.
•Electron configuration describes the
arrangement of electrons in the orbitals
of an atom. The electronic configuration
can be worked out as follows:
• Electrons are added to an atom, one at
a time, starting with the lowest energy
orbital (Aufbau Principle)
• No more than two electrons can
occupy an orbital (Pauli Exclusion
Principle)
• Electrons fill degenerate orbitals one at
a time with parallel before a second
electron is added with opposite spin
(Hund’s rule)
•The electron configuration is written with the principal quantum
number (1, 2, 3 etc) followed by the symbol for the orbitals (s, p,d,f)
and superscript which shows the number of the electrons in the
sublevel.
•1s2
• ENERGY LEVEL
• S – TYPE OF ORBITAL
• 2 – NUMBER OF ELCTRONS IN ORBITAL
•
• EXAMPLE:
• Hydrogen atom (atomic number 1) has one electron which occupies
the lowest energy orbital that the 1s orbital.
• Tjerefore the electronic configuration of hydrogen is written as;
• Write the principal quantum number: 1
• Write the orbital: S
• Write the number of electrons in the number: 2
•= 1s2
•He and Ne have electronic
configurations with filled shells of
orbitals. We can use this to write
an abbreviated electronic
configuration in terms of the
previously filled shells of electrons
•Eg; the electronic configuration of
Mg (atomic number 12) is [Ne] 3s2
SPECIAL CASES- THE DOPE ONES 
•Special Electronic Configurations
1. Once the 3p orbitals are filled, the 4s orbitals is filled before the 3d orbitals because the 4s orbitals is at a
slightly lower energy than the 3d. Therefore, in K, Ca, Sc
•The next 9 elements fill electrons in the 3d orbitals. However, there is a little irregularity in the E.C of Cr and
Cu
• Cr: is [Ar] 4s1 3d5 and not 4s2 3d4
• Cu: [Ar] 4s1 3d10 and not [Ar] 4s2 3d9
• In each case one electron has been transferred from the 4s orbital to a 3d orbital because the half-filled and
filled sublevels of the 3d orbital decreases slightly in energy and spin pairing of the 4s orbital increases
slightly in energy.
 END
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