Testing of transformers

Transformer Tests
The performance of a transformer can be calculated on the basis of
equivalent circuit.The four main parameters of equivalent circuit are:
- R01 as referred to primary (or secondary R02)

- the equivalent leakage reactance X01 as referred to primary

(or secondary X02)

- Magnetising susceptance B0 ( or reactance X0)

- core loss conductance G0 (or resistance R0)

The above constants can be easily determined by two tests
- Oper circuit test (O.C test / No load test)
- Short circuit test (S.C test/Impedance test)
Open-circuit Test

 In Open Circuit Test the transformer’s secondary

winding is open-circuited, and its primary winding is
connected to a full-rated line voltage.
• Usually conducted on H.V side
• To find
(i) No load loss or core loss
(ii) No load current Io which is helpful in finding
Go(or Ro ) and Bo (or Xo )
Circuit diagram
Model caluclations
Core loss  Woc  V0 I 0 cos 0 V0
Woc R0 
cos 0  Iw
V0 I 0
I c or I w  I 0 cos 0 V0
X0 
I m or I   I 0 sin 0  I 02 -I w2 I
I0 Iw
I 0  V0 Y0 ;  Yo  G0 
V0 V0
Woc
Woc  V02 G 0 ;  Exciting conductance G 0  I
V02 B0 
& Exciting susceptance B0  Y02  G02
V0
Short-circuit Test
 In Short Circuit Test the secondary terminals are short circuited, and the
primary terminals are connected to a fairly low-voltage source
 The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short circuited
windings is equal to its rated value. The input voltage, current and power
is measured.
• Usually conducted on L.V side
• To find
(i) Full load copper loss – to pre determine the efficiency

(ii) Z01 or Z02; X01 or X02; R01 or R02 - to predetermine the voltage regulation
Circuit diagram
Model calculations &eqivalent circuit

Full load cu loss  Wsc  I sc2 R01

Wsc
R 01 
I sc2
Vsc
Z 01 
I sc
 X 01  Z 012  R012
Voltage regulation of a transformer

no - load voltage  full - load voltage

Voltage regulation 
no - load voltage
Vs N s
recall 
Vp N p
N 
Secondary voltage on no-load V2  V1  2 
 N1 
V2 is a secondary terminal voltage on full load

Substitute we have  N2 
V1    V2
 N1 
Voltage regulation 
 N2 
V1  
 N1 
Transformer equivalent circuit
To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer, it is
necessary understand the voltage drops within it.
Cont..
 Ignoring the excitation of the branch (since the current flow through
the branch is considered to be small), more consideration is given to
the series impedances (Req +jXeq).
 Voltage Regulation depends on magnitude of the series impedance
and the phase angle of the current flowing through the transformer.
 Phasor diagrams will determine the effects of these factors on the
voltage regulation. A phasor diagram consist of current and voltage
vectors.
Cont..
 Assume that the reference phasor is the secondary voltage, VS.
Therefore the reference phasor will have 0 degrees in terms of
angle.
 Based upon the equivalent circuit, apply Kirchoff Voltage
Law,

VP
 VS  Req I S  jX eq I S
k
Transformer Phasor Diagram

When the power factor is unity, VS is lower than VP so VR > 0.

13
Transformer Phasor Diagram
With a leading power factor, VS is higher than the referred VP so VR < 0
 Transformer Phasor Diagram
For lagging loads, the vertical components of Req and Xeq will partially

cancel each other. Due to that, the angle of VP/a will be very small

 hence we can assume that VP/k is horizontal. Therefore the

approximation will be as follows:
 voltage regulation
In terms of secondary values
0 V2  V2 I 2 R02 cos  2  I 2 X 02 sin  2
% regulation  
0 V2 0 V2

where '' for lagging and '-' for leading

In terms of primary values
V1  V2' I 1 R01 cos 1  I 1 X 01 sin 1
% regulation  
V1 V1
where '' for lagging and '-' for leading
Transformer Efficiency
 The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of
useful power output to the input power.
 The input and the output power are measured in the same unit.
Its unit is either in Watts (W) or KW. Transformer efficiency is
denoted by Ƞ.
seperation of losses test in a transformer
PROCEDURE:
 Start the alternator with the help of prime mover (DC Motor).
 Adjust the speed of the prime mover so that the alternator voltage frequency should be 50
Hz.
 Vary the excitation of the alternator so that the required voltage builds across the armature
(Say 230 V between line and neutral).
 Note down all meter readings.
 Repeat the above steps for different frequencies by changing the speed of the prime mover
(With Speed control of DC Shunt motor by Armature control or Field Control).
 Repeat step 6 for different frequencies of the alternator say 46 Hz, 48 Hz, 50 Hz, and 54 Hz
keeping V/f ratio constant.
 Plot the graph between V/f and core losses of the transformer.
Model graph
Parallel operation of
transformers
Necessity Of Parallel Operation Of
Transformers
 Why parallel operation of transformers is needed?
 Increased Load:
 Non-availability of large transformer:
 Increased reliability:
 Transportation is easier for small transformers:
Conditions For Parallel Operation

 Voltage ratio of all connected transformers must be same.

 The per unit (pu) impedance of each transformer on its own base

must be same.

 The polarity of all connected transformers must be same

 The phase sequence must be identical of all parallel transformers.

 The short-circuit impedances should be approximately equal

 Parallel operation of two
transformers

the transformers are connected in

parallel when the load is more than the
rating of the individual transformers.
several smaller units are operated in
parallel which share a common load.

in the fig. we can see that the primary windings are connected to the supply bus
bars while the secondary are connected to load bus bars
PARALLEL OPERATION
OF TWO IDEAL
TRANSFORMER
Parallel operation of two ideal transformers
phasor diagram

now we will consider ideal

case of two transformers
having the same voltage
ratio and their voltage
triangles are equal in size
and shape.
as seen the impedance
voltage triangles of both the
transformers is same .
Current through two t/f’s
Parallel operation oftwo t/f’s with equal
voltage ratio
 theory

let us now consider the case of two transformers connected in parallel having
equal voltage ratios. the two transformers are having no load secondary voltage
same .
 these voltages are in phase with each other.
this is possible if the magnetizing currents of the two transformers are not much
different .

 this is represented in the shown circuit.

The phasor diagram under this condition is shown .
 The two impedances Z1 and Z2 are in parallel.
The values of Z1 and Z2 are with respect to secondary.
 PARALLEL
OPERATION OF
TRANSFORMERS
WITH UNEQUAL
VOLTAGE RATIOS
Parallel Operation of Transformers with
Unequal Voltage Ratios

Now we will consider the case of two transformers working in parallel and having
unequal voltage ratio. This is shown in the Fig. 1.
 The voltage ratios of the two transformers are not equal. The parallel operation
under this case is still possible. But as seen previously there would be a circulating
current under no load condition.
Derivation for currents
Let us consider voltage ratio of transformer 1 is slightly more than 2. So that
induced e.m.f.. E1 is greater than E2. Thus the resultant terminal voltage will be E1 -
E2 which will cause a circulating current under no load condition.
Ic = (E1 - E2)/(Z1 + Z2 )
From the circuit diagram we have,
E1 = V2 + I1 Z1
E2 = V2 + I2 Z2
Also, IL = I 1 + I 2
V2 = IL ZL = ( II + I2 ) ZL
E1 =(I1 + I2) ZL + II Z1 .........(a)
E2 =(I1 + I2 ) ZL + I2 Z2 .......(b)
Subtracting equations (a) and (b) we have,
E1 - E2 = I1 Z1 - I2 Z2
I1 = ((E1 - E2) + I2 Z2) /Z1
Cont..
Subtracting this value in equation (b),

... I2 = (E2 Z1 - (E1 - E2)ZL) / (Z1 Z2 + ZL (Z1 + Z2))

Similarly, I1 = (E1 Z2 + (E1 - E2)ZL)/ (Z1 Z2 + ZL (Z1 + Z2))

Adding the above equations,

I1 + I2 = (E1 Z2 + E2 Z1) / (Z1 Z2 + ZL (Z1 + Z2)) .............(c)

But IL = I1 + I2

Load voltage, V 2 = I L ZL

Dividing both numerator and denominator of equation (c) by Z 1 Z2,

Cont..
 AUTO
TRANSFORMERS
CONSTRUCTION:

In an autotransformer , only one winding is wound on a laminating

magnetic core while in 2 winding , two windings are wound. the
single winding of the autot/f are used as primary and secondary. the
part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary. the
voltage can be stepped down or up using an autotransformer.
accordingly they are classified as
1. step up autotransformers
2. step down autotransformers
in the fig the convectional two
winding t/f and the step up and
down t/f are shown .
in step down t/f the entire
winding acts as a primary while
the part of the winding is used
common to both primary and
secondary.
 thus ab forms the primary
having n1 turns while bc forms
secondary with n2 turns.
 THE CURRENT DISTRIBUTION IN STEP UP AND STEP
DOWN AUTO T/F ARE SHOWN AS BELOW :

transfprmation ratio of a.t/f:

neglecting the losses the leakage reactance and the magnetizing current,the
transformation ratio of an auto t/f can be obtained as ,
k=v2/v1
=i1/i2
=N2/N1
k is greater than unity for step up auto t/f while k is less than unity for step down
auto t/f.
 due to the use of single winding compared to the normal two winding t/f for the
same cpacity and voltage ratio,
there is substantial saving in copper in case of auto t/f.
COPPER SAVING IN AUTO T/F:
for any winding the cross section o winding is proportional to the current i.
 while the total length of the winding is proportional to the number of turns n .
 hence the weight of copper is proportional to the product og n and i.
 while i=current of winding
 n=number of turns of winding
 CONSIDER A TWO
WINDING T/F AND
A STEP DOWN T/F
AS SHOWN IN FIG .

TWO WINDING TRASFORMER

then let
Wtw= total weight of copper
in two winding t/f
Wat=weight of copper in
Saving of copper=KWtwv for step down
auto t/f
transformer
Saving of copper=1/K *Wtwv for step up
transformer
POWER TRANSFER IN AUTO T/F :
it is mentioned earlier that the power input to an autotransformer gets transferred to
the scondary by two ways , i.e,
1. by electromagnetic induction
2. by conduction consider a loaded auto t/f as shown .
the current drawn form the supply is i1 while the
input voltage is v1.

input power = v1i1

while the load current id i2 at a
load voltage v2
output power=v2i2
now bc portion has n2 turns and acts as secondary. the current induced in this
scondary due to transformer action is i2-i1 while secondary induced voltage is v2.
pt=power transferred inductively
 =(i2-i1)v2=v2i2-v2i1
 k=v2/v1 = i1/i2
 pt=k.v1(i1/k - k.v1.i1)
 =v1 i1- k v1 i1
PT=(1-K)V1 I1 = (1-K)INPUT POWER

while the remaining power gets transffered directly that is,

conductively as windings are electrically connected.
VA RATING OF AYTO TRANSFORMERS:

 let us compare the VA rating of two winding transformer and

the VA rating of two winding transformer when connected as
an auto t/f. for step down transformer

 For step up transformer K is replaced by 1/K

CONVERSION OF TWO WINDING T/F TO AN AUTO T/F :

 consider a two winding t/f with the polarities as shown . the t/f turns
ratio is 1:1 and v2=v1=400v.
 this t/f can be converted to an auto t/f in two ways
 additive polarity
 subtractive polarity
 the primary and secondary windings can be connected in series with
additive polarity as ashown .
the common point a which is common to
input and output can be taken as the top of
an auto t/f.
 the corresponding auto t/f is as shown .
thus if input is v1 then the output is
v1+v2 due to additive polarities

with common point a at the bottom

auto t/f can be shown .
SUBTRACTIVE POLARITY :
the primary and secindary windings can be connected in series
opposition as shown in fig.

the common point a which is

common to input and output can be
taken as the top of the auto t/f as
shown in fig.
thus if the input is v1 then the
output voltage is v1-v2 due to
subtractive polarities.
ADVANTAGES OF AUTO TRANSFORMERS :

 copper requried is very less.

 the efficiency is higher compared to two winding t/f.
 the size and cost is less compared to two winding transformer.
 the resistance and leakage reactance is less compared to two winding t/f.
 the copper losses are less.
 due to less resistance and leakage resistance the voltage regulation is supirior
than the two winding t/f.
 va rating is more compared to two winding.
 a smooth and continious variation of voltage is possible.
LIMITATIONS OF AUTO TRANSFORMERS :
 low impedance hence high short circuit currents for short circuits on
secondary side.
 if a section of winding common to primary and secondary is opened full
primary voltage appears across the secondary resulting in higher voltages on
secondary and danger of accidents.
 no elecrical seperation between primary and secondary which is risky in case
of high voltage levels .
 economical only where the voltage ratio is less than 2 .
APPLICATIONS OF AUTO TRANSFORMER :
 for safely starting the machines like induction motors, synchronous motors as
a stators.
 to give a small boost to a distribution cable to compensate for a voltage drop
i.e as a booster.
 as a furnace t/f to supply power to the furnace as the requried supply voltage.
 for interconnecting the systems which are operating roughly at same voltage
level.
 it can be used to vary the voltage to the load, smoothly from zero to the rated
voltage. such a device giving smooth and continuous supply using an ayto t/f
is called variac. a single phase auto t/f used as a variac is as shown….
POLY PHASE
transformers
Definition of polyphase
 Poly phase is essentically acombination of two or more than
single phase volage having same magnitude and frequent but
displaced from one another by equal eletrical degrees or angle
Terminology
Phase Sequence : The phase sequence is the order in which the
voltage in the three phase attain their maximum value is called
phase sequence or phase order.
Phase voltage : The voltage between one of the phase and the
neutral terminal is known as the phase voltage and it is
represented as the Vph.
Phase Current : The current flowing through any phase of the
winding is called as the phase current and it is denoted by Iph.
Line voltage : The voltage between any two phases of the
supply system is called line voltage and it is
represented by VL.
Line Current : The current flowing through any two
phases is termed as a line current and it is denoted by
IL.
Three Phase Voltages and Currents
 the primary and secondary windings of a transformer can be
connected in different configuration as shown to meet practically any
requirement. in the case of three phase transformer windings, three
forms of connection are possible: “star” (wye), “delta” (mesh) and
“interconnected-star” (zig-zag).
 the combinations of the three windings may be with the primary
delta-connected and the secondary star-connected, or star-delta, star-
star or delta-delta, depending on the transformers use. when
transformers are used to provide three or more phases they are
generally referred to as a polyphase transformer.
THREE PHASE TRASFORMER CONNECTION
TRANSFROMER STAR AND DELTA CONFIGURATIONS
 symbols are generally used on a three phase transformer
to indicate the type or types of connections used with
upper case y for star connected, d for delta connected
and z for interconnected star primary windings, with
lower case y, d and z for their respective secondaries.
then, star-star would be labelled yy, delta-delta would be
labelled dd and interconnected star to interconnected star
would be zz for the same types of connected
transformers.
Transformer winding identification

 we now know that there are four different ways in which three single-phase

transformers may be connected together between their primary and secondary

three-phase circuits. these four standard configurations are given as: delta-delta

(dd), star-star (yy), star-delta (yd), and delta-star (dy).

 transformers for high voltage operation with the star connections has the

advantage of reducing the voltage on an individual transformer, reducing the

number of turns required and an increase in the size of the conductors, making the

coil windings easier and cheaper to insulate than delta transformers.

 the delta-delta connection nevertheless has one big advantage over the star-delta

configuration, in that if one transformer of a group of three should become faulty

or disabled, the two remaining ones will continue to deliver three-phase power

with a capacity equal to approximately two thirds of the original output from the

transformer unit.a
Trasfromer delta and delta connection
Cont..
 in a delta connected ( dd ) group of transformers, the line voltage, vl is equal to

the supply voltage, vl = vs. but the current in each phase winding is given

as: 1/√3 × il of the line current, where il is the line current.

 one disadvantage of delta connected three phase transformers is that each
transformer must be wound for the full-line voltage, (in our example above
100v) and for 57.7 per cent, line current. the greater number of turns in the
winding, together with the insulation between turns, necessitate a larger and
more expensive coil than the star connection. another disadvantage with delta
connected three phase transformers is that there is no “neutral” or common
connection.
Trasfromer star and star connection
Cont....
 The voltage between any line of the three-phase transformer is called the

“line voltage”, VL, while the voltage between any line and the neutral point

of a star connected transformer is called the “phase voltage”, VP. This

phase voltage between the neutral point and any one of the line

connections is 1/√3 × VL of the line voltage. Then above, the primary side

phase voltage, VP is given as.

 The secondary current in each phase of a star-connected group of

transformers is the same as that for the line current of the supply,

then IL = IS.
Three phase voltage and current
 Star – delta turns ratio

 likewise, for a delta–star ( dy ) connected transformer,

with a 1:1 turns ratio, the transformer will provide
a 1:√3 step-up line-voltage ratio. then for a delta-star
connected transformer the turns ratio becomes:
 Delta-star turns ratio

 then for the four basic configurations of a three-phase

transformer, we can list the transformers secondary
voltages and currents with respect to the primary line
voltage, vland its primary line current il as shown in the
following table.
Three phase trasfromer line voltage and current

where: n equals the

transformers “turns ratio” (t.r.)
of the number of secondary
windings ns, divided by the
number of primary
windings np. ( ns/np ) and vl is
the line-to-line voltage
with vp being the phase-to-
neutral voltage.
 Detla – Star trasfromer
 the replacement of delta or mesh by equivalent
star connection is known as delta - star transformation.
the two connections are equivalent or identical to each other
if the impedance is measured between any pair of lines. that
means, the value of impedance will be the same if it is
measured between any pair of lines irrespective of whether
the delta is connected between the lines or its equivalent star
is connected between that lines.
Advantages of star connection
 In a star connection, phase voltage Vph = VL/ (3)1/2. Since the induced emf
in the primary winding of an alternator is directly proportional to the
number of turns, a star connected alternator will require less number of
turns than a delta connected alternator for the same voltage.
 For the same line voltage, a star connected alternator requires less

insulation than a delta connected alternator. Due to the above reasons three

phase alternators are generally star connected.

Cont..
 In star connection, we get 3-phase and 4-wire system. This permits the
use of two voltages (phase voltages as well as line voltages). Single
phase loads can be connected between any one lie and neutral wire while
the 3-phase loads can be put across the three lines. Such a flexibility is
not available in delta connection
 In star connection, the neutral point can be earthed. Such a measure
offers many advantages. For example, in case of line to earth fault (L-G
fault), the insulators have to bear 1/31/2 (57.7%) times the line voltage.
Earthing of neutral also permits the use of protective devices (relays) to
protect the system in the case of ground faults
Advantages of delta connection

 This type of connection is most suitable for rotatory

conveyersMost of the three phase loads are delta connected
than star connected.
 One reason for this, atleast for the case of unbalanced load, is
the flexibility with which loads may be added or removed on a
single phase.
 This is difficult to do with star connected 3-wire loadMost of
the3-phase induction motors are delta connected
THE END!!