HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND

THE HORN,
 CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION
1.1.NATURE OF HISTORY
• The term history derived from the Greek word Istoria, means
“inquiry” or “an account of one’s inquiries.” The first use of the
term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians,
Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C), who is often held to be the “father of
history.”
• Academically, history can be defined as an organized and
systematic study of the past. The study involves the discovery,
collection, organization, and presentation of information about
past events
 Nature of History
• In this regard, the major concern of history is the study of
human society and its interaction with the natural
environment, which is also the subject of study by many
other disciplines. What differentiates history from other
disciplines is that while the latter study the interaction
between humans and their environment in the present
state, history studies the interaction between the two in
the past within the framework of the continuous process of
change taking place in time.
1.2.Uses of Studying History

• Peoples live in the present and they plan for and worry about the
future. History, however, is the study of the past. Why bother with
the past while living in the present and anticipating what is yet to
come?
• History Helps Better Understand the Present
• History Provides a Sense of Identity
• To forecast what will happen in future
 …Uses of History
• 3.History Teaches Critical Skills
• Studying history helps students to develop key research skills. These include how to find
and evaluate sources; how to make coherent arguments based on various kinds of
evidence and present clearly in writing. These analytical and communication skills are
highly usable in other academic pursuits. Gaining skills in sorting through diverse
interpretations is also essential to make informed decisions in our day-to-day life.
• 4. History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness
• 5. History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination
 1.3.Sources and Methods of Historical Studies

Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: Primary and Secondary.
• 1.Primary sources are surviving traces of the past available to us in the present.
They are original or first hand in their proximity to the event both in time and in
space. Examples of primary sources are manuscripts (handwritten materials),
diaries, letters, minutes, court records and administrative files, travel documents,
photographs, maps, video, audiovisual, and artifacts such as coins, fossils, weapons,
utensils, and buildings.
• 2. Secondary sources, on the other hand, are second-hand published accounts
about past events. They are written long after the event has occurred, providing an
interpretation of what happened, why it happened, and how it happened, often
based on primary sources.
 Sources and Methods of Historical Studies
• Examples of secondary sources are articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and
published stories or movies about historical events. Secondary materials give
us what appear to be finished accounts of certain historical periods and
phenomena. Nevertheless, no history work can be taken as final, as new
sources keep coming to light. New sources make possible new historical
interpretations or entirely new historical reconstructions.
 1.4. Critical Analysis of Sources

• For the history of Ethiopia and the Horn, historians use a combination of the
sources described above. However, whatever the source of information-primary
or secondary, written or oral- the data should be subjected to critical evaluation
before used as evidence.
• Primary sources have to be verified for their originality and authenticity
because sometimes primary sources like letters may be forged. Secondary
sources have to be examined for the reliability of their reconstructions. Oral
data may lose its originality and authenticity due to distortion through time.
Therefore, it should be crosschecked with other sources such as written
documents to determine its veracity or authenticity. In short, historians (unlike
novelists) must find evidence about the past, ask questions of that evidence,
and come up with explanations that make sense of what the evidence says
about the people, events, places and time periods they study about.
 1.5.HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE
• Historiography
HORN can be defined as the history of historical writing,
studying how knowledge of the past, either recent or distant, is obtained
and transmitted.
• The organized study and narration of the past was introduced by ancient
Greek historians notably Herodotus and Thucydides (c.455-400 B.C.E.) .
The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the
Chinese. The most important early figure in Chinese historical thought
and writing was the Han dynasty figure Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.).
 HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
• History emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the
nineteenth century first in Europe and subsequently in other parts of the
world including the US.
• The German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues
established history as an independent discipline in Berlin with its own set of
methods and concepts by which historians collect evidence of past events,
evaluate that evidence, and present a meaningful discussion of the subject.
Ranke’s greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past is such that he
is considered as the “father of modern historiography.”
 HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

• The earliest known reference that we have on history of Ethiopia and the
Horn is the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, written in the first century A.D by
an anonymous author. Another document describing Aksum’s trade and
the then Aksumite king’s campaigns on both sides of the sea is the
Christian Topography composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor,
in the sixth century A.D.
 1.6. SOURCES ON ETHIOPIAN HISTORY :
HAGIOGRAPHIES AND KITABS
• Inscriptions aside, the earliest written Ethiopian material dates from the
seventh century A.D. The document was found in Abba Gerima monastery
in Yeha. This was followed by a manuscript discovered in Haiq Istifanos
monastery of present day Wollo in the thirteenth century A.D. The value of
manuscripts is essentially religious. Yet, for historians, they have the
benefit of providing insights into the country’s past.
• For example, the manuscript cited above contains the list of medieval
kings and their history in brief. The largest groups of sources available for
medieval Ethiopian history are hagiographies originating from Ethiopian
Orthodox Church. Invariably written in Ge’ez, an important function of
hagiographies is enhancing the prestige of saints.
 1.6.1.HAGIOGRAPHIES AND KITABS

• A parallel hagiographical tradition existed among Muslim communities of

the country. One such account offers tremendous insight into the life of a
Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of Gattira, in present day Wollo, in the
late nineteenth century. Besides the saint’s life, the development of
indigenous Islam and contacts between the region’s Muslim community
and the outside world are some of the issues discussed in this document.
 ….CHRONICLES AND KITABS
• Ethiopia had also an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles.
Chronicles in the ancient Ethiopian Ge’ez tongue first appeared in the fourteenth
century and continue (sometimes in Amharic) into the early twentieth. Kings or
their successors entrusted the writing of chronicles to court scribes or clergymen
of recognized clerical training and calligraphic skills.

• The earliest and the last of such surviving documents are the Glorious Victories
of Amde-Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu
respectively. Chronicles incorporate both legends and facts-past and
contemporary about the monarch’s genealogy, upbringing military exploits, piety
and statesmanship. Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong
chronological framework, even if it would require considerable labor to convert
their relative chronology to an absolute one. It is also averse to quantification,
have a limitation ( Bias and Chronology ).
 1.6.2. ARABIC DOCUMENTS
• For example, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture, language and
import-export trade in the main central region of the east African coast in
the tenth and in the fourteenth centuries respectively. For the 16th and17th
centuries we have two documents composed by Yemeni writers who were
eyewitnesses to the events they described. The first document titled Futuh al
Habesha was composed by Shihab al-Din, who recorded the conflict between
the Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in the sixteenth century.
• The other first-hand account was left to us by Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni
delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledas (r. 1632-67).
 1.6.3.TRAVEL ACCOUNT
• The contribution of European missionaries and travelers to the development of
Ethiopian historiography is also significant. From the early sixteenth until the late
nineteenth centuries, missionaries (Catholics and Protestants) came to the country
with the intention of staying, and who, nevertheless, maintained intimate links with
Europe.
• Thus, the missionaries’ sources provide us with valuable information covering a
considerable period. Some of the major topics covered by these sources include
religious and political developments within Ethiopia, and the country’s foreign
relations. An example of such account is The Prester John of the Indies, composed by a
Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez who accompanied the Portuguese mission to the
court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520.
 TRAVEL ACCOUNT
• In addition to the missionary sources, travel documents had important
contribution to the development of Ethiopian historiography. One
example of travel documents is James Bruce’s Travels to Discover the
Source of the Nile. Like other sources, however, both the missionaries
and travelers’ materials can only be used with considerable
reservations and with care for they are socially and politically biased.
 1.7.THE PROFESSIONALIZATION OF
HISTORY IN OTHER PARTS OF THE HORN
• The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-
colonial phenomenon. With the establishment of independent nations, a
deeper interest in exploring their own past quickly emerged among African
populations, perhaps stimulated by reactions to decades of education in an
alien imperial historiography.
• With this came an urgent need to recast the historical record and to
recover evidence of many lost pre-colonial civilizations. The decolonization
of African historiography required new methodological approach (tools of
investigation) to the study of the past that involved a critical use of oral
data and tapping the percepts of ancillary disciplines like archeology,
anthropology and linguistics.
 1.8. GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT
• The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of Northeast Africa, which
now contains the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. The region
consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Rift Valley.
• The major physiographic features of the region are a massive highland complex
of mountains and plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley and surrounded by
lowlands, semi-desert, deserts and tropical forests along the periphery. The
diversity of the terrain led to regional variations in climate, natural vegetation,
soil composition, and settlement patterns. As with the physical features, people
across the region are remarkably diverse: they speak a vast number of different
languages, profess to many distinct religions, live in a variety types of dwellings,
and engage in a wide range of economic activities.
 GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT
• The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by contacts with others
through commerce, migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, and the waxing and
waning of state systems. Yet, the evolution of human history owed much to
geographical factors notably location, landforms, resource endowment, climate
and drainage systems which continue to impact, as incentives and deterrents,
the movement of people and goods in the region.
• Another element of geography factor that had profound impact on human
history is drainage system. Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage
systems. These are the Nile River, Gibe/Omo–Gojeb, Genale/Jubba-Shebele, the
Awash River,and the Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakesystems. Ethiopia and the Horn
can be divided into three major distinct environmental zones
 Chapter Two
Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn
2.1. Human Evolution
Archaeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is a cradle of humanity.
Sites of such Archaeological evidences in Ethiopia are:
 Generally, the Middle Awash River valleys and the Lower Omo as well as northern
Ethiopia are sites noticed for evidences related to biological and cultural evolution in
Ethiopia.
 Specifically in:
1. Anchar (in West Hararghe)
A fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was unearthed/discovered in this site
in 2007.
2. Middle Awash
A fossil named Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP) was
discovered in this site.
3. Aramis in Afar
A fossil named Ardipithecus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered in this place in
1994.
4. Belohdelie in Middle Awash
CONT…

Australopithecines dated back 3.6 million years BP were discovered in this site.
6. Hadar in Afar
Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated 3.18 million years BP) with 40%
complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters and pelvis looks like bipedal
female was discovered in this site in 1974.
7. Dikika, Mille, Afar
A three years old child’s fossil, Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3
million years B.P was discovered in this place.
8. The Lower Omo
This site is noticeable for the genus Homo, known for the evolution and
development connected with the human brain.
Thus, a partial skull of a fossil known as Homo habilis, which is derived from Latin
terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands/ ability to use
hands), dated 1.9 million years BP has been found in the Lower Omo.
CONT…
9. Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb
 A fossil named Homo erectus (walking upright, dated 1.6 million years B. P.) was
discovered at this archaeological site.
 Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then, spread out to the
rest of the world.
10.Middle Awash-was also a site of skeleton of Archaic Homo sapiens
(knowledgeable human being, dated 400,000 years B.P.) ,and Homo sapiens idaltu.
11. Porc Epic near Dire Dawa and and Kibish around Lower Omo–were also
archaeological sites of fossils of Homo sapiens- sapiens.
2.2 Cultural evolution
 It is the technological changes that brought socio-economic transformation on
human life. It can be conventionally grouped into Stone Age, Bronze Age and
Iron Age.
 Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings.
CONT..
Sub-periods/Divisions of Stone Age
There are 3 sub-periods of Stone Age:
1. The Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)
 Dated from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P. That time was also a period when
human beings developed language with shelter in cave using stone, bone,
wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing.
 It was also a period which had seen labor division where males were
identified as hunters and children and females as gatherers.
2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)
Dated from 11, 000-10,000 B. P.
It was a transition between the old stone age and the new stone age.
3. Neolithic (New Stone Age)
 Dated from 10, 000-6, 000 B.P.
CONT..
 It was a period in which human beings began sedentary way of life/
settled-agricultural society.
 In that period human beings transformed its activities from hunting and
gathering to the domestication of plants and animals.
 But the process of domestication took place independently in the various
parts of the world. In Ethiopia and the Horn thus people began to cultivate
crops like teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), oil seeds like
nug(Guzotia abyssinica) and plants like enset (Ensete ventricosum).
 Likewise, Ethiopia and the Horn was one of the regions where
domestication of animals like cattle and use of stone tools (e.g. in Emba-
Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea)
took place.
 Sites of domestication of animals like cattle in Ethiopia were: Laga Oda
rock shelter near Charchar, Lalibela Cave and Lake Basaqa near Matahara.
CONT…
2.3. The Peopling of the Region
Languages and Linguistic Processes
 Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity accounting
for about 90 languages.
Classification of languages in the region
 The languages of the region are classified into two super families and many families.
 The two super families are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.
 Afro-Asiatic super family is sub-divided into the following families. These are

A) Cushitic- Grouped into four branches

o Northern Cushitic : is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering
the Sudan.
o Central Cushitic: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant, Hemtanga and Bilen.
o Eastern Cushitic : This includes Oromiffa, Sidama, Somali, Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso,
Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye,
Saho, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
o Southern Cushitic : Represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
CONT…
B) Semitic:
 It is divided into two:
o North Semitic: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigrigna
(spoken in Eritrea and Tigray).
o South Semitic : Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay, Gafat (extinct), Gurage,
and Mesmes (endangered).
C) Omotic:
 It includes Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro,
Dime, Dizi, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer, Hozo, Kachama,Ganjule, Karo,
Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem,
Zayse and other.
 Nilo-Saharan Super family
 It includes linguistic groups like Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama,
Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri
and Uduk.
 CONT…
N.B.
Language classification did not remain static. Factors like population movements, warfare,
trade, religious and territorial expansion and urbanization affected linguistic processes and
have made some languages to die out or have been in danger of extinction.
Settlement patterns and economic formations of people in Ethiopia and the Horn
Settlement pattern is the distribution of peoples across the landscape and is resulted from
factors such as:
 Long historical processes
 Environmental, socio-economic and political processes
 In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse. Some people inhabited
extensive highlands and others the lowlands.
 For example, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red
Sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to different
directions.
 Omotic peoples have largely inhabited the southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo
River.
CONT…

 The Nilo-Saharan are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border.

 In terms of economic activities the people of the region have been
engaged in interlinked and co-existed activities such as agriculture and
pastoralism.
 The Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups: sustained sedentary agriculture
at least since 10, 000 years B. P in the plateau areas of the region.
 The major economic activities of the Omotic have been mixed farming
and trade in northern Omo while southern Omo have predominantly
practiced pastoralism and fishing.
 Pastoral economy has been practiced in the eastern lowland region since
early periods. In this area the rearing/raising of camel, goat and cattle has
been the most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho and
Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo.
 CONT…
2.4 Religion
Major religions practiced in the region are:
1.Indigenous Religion
 It is belief in one Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to natural
phenomena, which are considered sacred.
 It is practiced among the Oromo-as Waqeffanna, a belief in the existence of one Supreme
Being called Waqa; among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa; among the
Kambata there is the Negitaor Aricho Magano (Sky God); among the Wolayta ther is
Tosaa (God); The Keficho called their Supreme Being Yero; the Boro-Shinasha believe in
super natural power called Iqa and the Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven).
2.Judaism
It is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established
with the ancient Jewish (Hebrew). Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in
Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples (eg. Bete-Israel) since early times.
3. Islam
CONT…
o When Prophet Mohammed started the teaching of Islam in Mecca in 610 AD, he faced
opposition from the Quraysh rulers. Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of
his early followers including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman and others
to Aksum.
• The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in
Arabic sources accepted them from 615-28.
• Islam spread to the Horn of Africa not through Jihad, but through peaceful ways
including trade.
• Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by the beginning of
eighth century. In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the islands
developed a sultanate.
• In due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast. It was from these
coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral
communities of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers and merchants.
• The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been the depositories of
cultures, traditions and literature of local Muslims.
CONT…
4. Christianity
It became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana (r.320-360),who
dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god), Arwe (serpent-
python god), Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth god), and embraced Christianity.
Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Fremenatius
(Fremenatos / Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama).
Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in later part of fifth
century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints (Abuna Aregawwi,
Abuna Isaq, Abba Afse, Abba Pentelwon, Abba Alef, Abba Gubba, Abba Liqanos, Abba
Sehama and Abba Yima’ata). Its expansion continued during the Zagwe(1150-1270)
period, in the time of Solomonic dynasty during the Medieval period and in the 19 th
century.
Churches and monasteries were established. These included Rock-hewn churches of
Lalibela, Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea, Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Debra-Hayiq in
Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam, Birbir Mariam in Gamo and Debre-
Asabot on the way to Harar
 CHAPTER THREE
3.Politics, Economy and Society in Ethiopia and the Horn to the End of the Thirteenth Century
3.1. Emergence of States
Defining state:
 State refers to an autonomous political unit having population, defined territory, sovereignty and
government with the power to decree and enforce laws.
 State was the outcome of regular cultural process.
 Historically, states arose independently in different places and at different times, for example, it
emerged in Ethiopia and the Horn independently from other parts of the world.
 In the case of Ethiopia and the Horn, societies in this region underwent political, economic, social
and cultural changes from ancient times to the end of the thirteenth century.
 One important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of sedentary agriculture which
made people to engage in farming by forming settlement. Intermediaries (traders) also began to
buy agricultural products of sedentary people.
CONT…
 In such way states were formed mainly through the expansion of
agriculture that gave rise to class differentiation. Moreover, the growth
of trade facilitated the development of states.
 The first states were theocratic states, and priests (shaman) maintained
the social and religious affairs of their people. Gradually, however, As
production became market oriented, the priests were gradually
replaced by chiefs, who began collecting regular and compulsory
tributes known as protection payments.
 Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa, where early state
formation took place. From small beginnings, such states gradually
developed into powerful kingdoms and even empires with a well-
demarcated social structure.
CONT..
3.2. Ancient States
In North and Northeast
A. Punt
Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Evidence for the existence of Punt: Egyptian hieroglyphic writings and vivid paintings
tell us a series of naval expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs/kings sent to Punt.
E.g. 1. Expedition was sent to Punt by Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) to collect
myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy).
2. Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.), sent five ships under the
leadership of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat and the expedition was
welcomed by Punt’s King Perehu and his wife Ati. This was the best described and
illustrated expedition.
The expedition was able to return collecting frankincense, cinnamon, sweet smelling
woods (sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich
feathers and egg, monkeys, giraffes, people, etc.
CONT…
o Exports of Punt to Egypt: Iron, bronze, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying
and medicinal plants
o Its imports from Egypt: axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes,
bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets(cheap jewelry).
 But the exact location of Punt has remained vague. Some scholars
suggest that Punt might be located in Northern or Northeastern
Somalia because of the reference to incense and myrrh. Some others
suggest that Punt might be located in Northern Ethiopia because of the
reference to gold, ebony and monkeys.
B. Da’amat, Yeha, Hawulti Melazo and Addi-Seglemeni
in the vicinity of Aksum could also be mentioned.
 Among these, Da’amat king’s is said to have used politico-religious title
known as Mukarib in the 5th century B.C. and in Da’amat various gods
and goddesses were worshipped.
CONT…
Yeha
 It probably emerged around 1,000 BC as a small center where South
Arabian merchants and their agents bought and stored ivory,
rhinoceros horn and other goods.
 Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry as well as
still standing temple and inscriptions indicate Yeha’s glory.
Hawulti Melazo: a site where stone tablets that are inscribed in
rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings
representing herds of cattle were excavated.
Addi-Seglemeni: was site of oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription.
C. The Aksumite State
 The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.
Originally, it was small and it was expanded and enlarged gradually.
 Trade was flourished in Aksumite state.
CONT…
o Aksumite state’s major items of export: Ivory, myrrh, emerald,
frankincense and some spices (like ginger), cinnamon, gold, rhinoceros
horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and animals like apes.
o Its imports: Manufactured products like garments and textiles from
Egypt, India, Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry from
Egypt and other places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds,
oil and wine from Roman Empire and Syria.
o Zoscales (c.76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to communicate in
Greek language, Lingua Franca/common language/ of Greco-Roman
world. Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea
(Asia Minor).
o Evidence for Aksumite trade: obtained from the Adulis inscription
written in Greek, and the Christian Topography, describes commercial
activities of the Red Sea areas. It also mentions the internal long distance
trade between Aksum and a distant region called Sasu, most probably in
Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile.
CONT…
 Merchant took to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and
iron in exchange for gold.
 Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably
with the South Arabian region which led to exchange of ideas, material
and spiritual culture. Occasionally, the contact involved conflict. E.g.
Around 200A.D, the army of Aksumite king Gadarat attacked and posed
threats on peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula, in the present day
Yemen.
 B/n the third to the seventh centuries, Aksumite kings minted coins in
gold, silver and bronze for both overseas and local trade.
 Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman
Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time.
 Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar
and Saba.
CONT…

Decline of the Aksumite state

 The Aksumite state declined since the late seventh century because of internal
and external challenges. Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural
productivity and possibly plague infestation started to weaken it.
 With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702, the
international lifeline of the state was cut. Aksumite international trade came
under the control of the rising and expanding Arab Muslims.
 Its political and military power also declined and local rebellions challenged its
hegemony. Finally, rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah
(Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state.
 Its achievements:
 Include surviving indigenous script and calendar as well as EOC hymns and
chants, paintings; diversified ceramic tools, ivory curving, and urbanization and
sophisticated building traditions (palaces, stele, churches). It also developed
complex administrative and governance system, and agricultural system including
irrigation.
CONT….

D. Zagwe Dynasty (1150 to 1270).

 Agaw elites took part in Aksumite state structure serving as soldiers and
functionaries for at least four centuries.
 After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, they successfully took over the
state administration. Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married
Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od. Later, he
overthrew his father-in-law and took control of power.
Its political center: was in Bugna District within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa
near Roha (Lalibela).
Trade: The Agaw kings maintained the Aksumite traditions. They renewed cultural
and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region.
Exports: Slaves, ivory and rare spices
Imports: Cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, drags and coins.

Achievements: construction of caves, rock-hewn-monolithic churches of Lalibela.

Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and
Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the shape of the cross.
CONT…
Its Collapse: was due to internal problems of royal succession and
oppositions from groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum
who referred the Zagwe as “illegitimate rulers.”
 Then, Yekuno-Amlak (r.1270-1285) members of the power claimants or
the Solomonic Dynasty fought and killed the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek
and took power and ‘restored’ the Solomonic Dynasty which later stayed
in power for many centuries.

E. East, Central, Southern and Western State

Included: Bizamo (establishment-in 8th century and it was located opposite
to the present area of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area);
Damot, located in south of Abay, had renowned king in the 13 th century
known as Motalami; Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in
southwestern Ethiopia and its royal clan was called Hinnare Bushasho
(Hinnario Busaso); Gafat, unclear whether Gafat was a state or not but it is
claimed that its mountains were rich in gold.
 CONT…

F. Muslim Sultanates/Principalities since 8th century

 Included: Shewa where Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.)
was established; Fatagar was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a
in the eleventh century and known for cultivation of wheat and barley,
fruits as wells as herding of cattle, sheep and goats; Dawaro: located
south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle
extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast and it had a
currency called hakuna; Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying high
plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes;
 Included also: Ifat was a state located in the adjacent to Shewan
Sultanate. Its territory ran from northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain
eastward to the Awash. It was established by Umar Walasma who came
to Ifat b/n1271 and 1285.
 EXTERNAL RELATIONS…

External contact of Ethiopia and the Horn:

1)With Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C. It was a form of earliest contacts
with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.
2) With South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000 B.C.
3) With the East Roman or Byzantine Empire, a contact came following
the introduction of Christianity to Aksum, and Aksum and the Byzantine
Empire had also commercial contacts which declined in the 7th century
due to the expansion of Islam in the region.
4.With India and Persia-commercial relation was established
 Such contacts around the middle of the 12th century had made
Europeans to regard Ethiopian Highland Christian Kingdom as the
land of Prester John.
 3.3ECONOMY AND SOCIO-CULTURAL ACHIEVEMENTS
Economy:
 Included: 1. Agriculture was basic economic activity in highland parts and it
consisted of use of local irrigation technology and soil fertility techniques.
Basic resource: Land and had tenure system (for its holding, sharing and using)
Common land tenure system of ancient time comprised communal right to
land which was a group right of the family, clan and lineage.
 Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas. Rist is a kind
of communal birthright to land. The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
But they paid tributes to the state which was collected by state
functionaries or officials who were given gult right over the areas and
populations they administered on behalf of the state.
 Gult is a right to levy/impose tribute on rist owners’ produce. The tribute
collected by bale-gults, partly allotted for their own up keep and the rest
were sent to the imperial center. Gult right that became hereditary was
called Riste-Gult.
CONT…

2. Handicraft
 Indigenous handcraft technology such as artisans had existed since the ancient
period.
 Artisans were in engaged in metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry,
weaving, jewelry, basketry and others.
 E.g. Metal workers produced swords, javelins, shields, knives, axes, sickles, hoes
an others. Tanners produced leather tools.
 However, the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized. The ruling classes
mostly spent their accumulated wealth on imported luxurious items rather than
the domestic technology.

3. Trade (already discussed)

Socio-cultural Achievements:
Architecture: 1. Steles/obelisks building were practiced in Axum( the longest was 33
meters in height. The other two had heights of 24 and 21 meters.
CONT…

2. Zagwe period’s rock hewn churches were part of UNESCO’s world

heritage, registered in 1978.

3.Writing System: Scripts developed in Sabean and Ge’ez languages.

4. Calendar: There was invention of Ethiopic solar calendar.
 There was also Muslim (Islamic) calendar which is a lunar calendar
The Oromo and the Sidama (celebrating new year-Fiche Chambalala)
had a calendar based on star known among the Oromo as Urjii.
5. Numerals
 Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of
fourth century AD. E.g. In Geʽez language there has been the use of
numeral system.
 Unit Four
Politics, Economy and Socio-Cultural Processes
from the Late Thirteenth to the beginning of the
Sixteenth Centuries
 The “Restoration of the “Solomonic” Dynasty
• Succession Problem and Establishment of Royal Prison at Amba
Gishen
• Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom
• Evangelization, Religious Reforms and Religious Movements
 The Political and Socio-economic Dynamics in the Muslim Sultanate
 The Rise of Adal
 Trade and Expansion of Islam
 Rivalry Between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates
 External Relations
• Relations with Egypt
• Relations with Christian Europe
 EVANGELIZATION, RELIGIOUS REFORMS AND
RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

A. Evangelization
 It was an expansion of Christianity.
 Churches and their believers had been in existence long before expansion of Christian
kingdom. E.g. in Shewa
 Early Christians played an important role in the spread of Christianity in several areas.
 For example, Abba Iyesus-Mo'a (Haik Estifanos), opened new opportunities of learning
for Christians.
 Territorial expansion of Amde-Tsiyon was a momentum for spread of Christianity in the
medieval period.
• Abune Tekle-Haymanot of ( Debre Libanos), played a key role in reviving Christianity in
Shewa and followed by evangelization in Southern Ethiopia including medieval Damot.
 He baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity.
• By the direction from Bishop Yaqob, spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa
such as Kil'at, Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and Fatagar, Damot,
Waj and Enarya.
B. The Ewostatewos Movement
 In the 13th century witnessed development of monasticism and religious
movements.
 Abba Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in present
day Eritrea).
• His teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath on Saturday.
• Due to opposition, he fled the country to Egypt.
• His followers such as Bekimos, Merkoryewos and Gebre–Iyasus returned home
from Armenia led by Abba Absad to continue it.
• Soon, it spread to Enfranz, northern Tigray, and Hamessen.
• Anti Ewostatewos group emerged led by Aqabe-Se’at Sereqe Birhan in Hayq
Monastery .
• They were supported by the Abun and the monarch. The monarch imprisoned
• The clergy removed Ewostatians from the churches services and settled in peripheral
areas.
• Ewostatians sustained their movement in monasteries like Debre-Bizan, and Debre-San
C. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
 Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame.
 He established a rigid monastic organization.
 It emphasized on poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and independence from
secular authorities.
 Estifanos was initially able to convince atse Takla Maryam(r. 1430-33) as he posed no
threat to royal power and unity of the church.
 He collided with Zara-Yaqob due to his disapproval of religious initiatives of Emperor,
rejected royal supremacy and authority in spritual matters and refused to participate in
court judiciary.
 Zara-Yaqob took harsh measures against the Estifanosites allegedly for their opposition
of the veneration of St. Mary.
 Naod favorably inclined to the Estifanosites.
 The Estifanosites softened their position, reintegrated into EOC by lifting
excommunication during bishop Yeshaq.
D. The Religious Reforms of Zara Ya’iqob
 Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to stabilize and
consolidate the Orthodox Church.
 The assimilation of his pagan subjects into the Christian community, and the
creation of a religiously homogenous society was Zara Ya’iqob’s highest ideal.
 Some of his reforms were:
• He settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy towards the creation of a
suitable church-state union.
• He made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in the
Ethiopian church,
• Ewostatians agreed to receive Holy orders from the Ethiopian prelates.
• Further, he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.
• He ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesday and Friday, and to
get Father Confessors.
• He declared the abolition of all forms of pagan worship in his kingdom.
• He decreed that every Christian should bear the names of ‘the Father, the
Son and the Holy Ghost’ branded on his forehead.
• The sign of the cross also had to be affixed on all belongings of the
Christians- on their dress, their instruments of war, and even on their
ploughs.
• The king encouraged the establishment of a library in every church. This
was followed by revival of religious literature.
• Zara Ya’iqob himself wrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-
Me’lad, Metsafe-Sillasie, Metsafe-te’aqebo Mister.
• Some parts of Te’amre Maryam were translated from Arabic to Geez.
POLITICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DYNAMICS IN MUSLIM
SULTANATES
 Emergence:- a number of Muslim sultanates emerged since the 14th century.
 Trade:- both the major source of livelihood and state formation of Muslim Sultanates.
 Trade also a major source of conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates.
 One of the strongest Muslim Sultanates emerged along the trade routes and resisted the
Christian Kingdom until the second half of the 16 th C was the Sultanate of Adal.

TRADE AND EXPANSION OF ISLAM

 Trade:- served as the major channel for expansion of Islam and main source of
economy.
 The most known Muslim Sultanates were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577).
 Zeila served as the main trade outlet and old city states of Mogadishu, Brava and Merca
were used as ports for hinterland.
 With the revival of trade, different towns and trade centers emerged along the route from
Zeila to the interior.
 Travelers' accounts and chronicles referred to these towns and ruins of mosques and
residences mark the existence of market centers, which followed and served the trade
coasts.
 Jigjiga and the highlands of Harar and Charchar attest to the market towns that served the
Zeila route. These include:
1. Weez-Gebeya in western Shewa/famous market on the Fatagar-Dawaro-Harar route,
2. Suq-Wayzaro in old Damot,
3. Suq-Amaja and the very famous market centre Gandabalo on the Ifat-Awsa route.
 Gandabalo was largely inhabited by Muslim and Christian merchants serving the kings
and sultans as agents.
 Other big market towns include:
i. One that linked medieval Amhara with Awsa, called Wasel near what is today Ware-Illu,
Qorqora/Qoreta (north of Waldiya) and Mandalay in southern Tigray.
ii. The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash (“Lord of the Sea”), and
Asmara were the two important entrepots of caravans in the hinterland of Massawa.
 Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that passed through Zeila
due to their geographical proximity, although contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom.
4.4. RIVALRY BETWEEN THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AND THE
MUSLIM SULTANATES
 Causes for the rivalry:
 The ambition to control this trade route and commodities that passed through
Zeila led to rivalry between the “Solomonic” rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat.
 The first recorded conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Ifat took place in
1328.
• It was because the Muslim Sultanates organized their armies to take military action
against the Christian Kingdom.
• The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to the Christian King
Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods, capturing, and imprisoning the king's agent
Ti’iyintay returning from Cairo.
• These actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against Haqaddin I
defeated and took him prisoner and eventually replaced him by his brothe
Sabradin. Both Ifat and Fatagar came under Sabradin.
• The Sultanates of Hadiya and Dawaro made an alliance with Sabradin. Yet, Ifa
was defeated and Sabradin was captured on his retreat. Replaced by his brothe
Jamaladin.
• As a result, Ifat, Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated.
• Amde-Tsion required from them annual tributes and freedom of movement for al
caravans through Zeila.
• It was based on these grounds that some members of the Walasma moved thei
seat of power further east to Adal, from where they continued their struggle.
 THE RISE OF ADAL
 Adal:- was a branch of Walasma family splintered from Ifat and established in Harar in
1367.
 Dakar was the first center, in 1520 changed to Harar and 1576 to Awsa in Afar due to
the Oromo pressure.
 Having lost Ifat, they moved their seat of power further east to Adal (established by
Haqaddin II and Sa’adadin), and from there they continued their efforts to recover their
losses.
 To check their attacks on the highlands, the successors of Amde Tseyon had to conduct
repeated campaigns into the lowlands.
 These include: Amde Tseyon’s son, Saya Ar’ed (1344-71), succeeded by his sons, first
Newaye Maryam (1371-80) and later Dawit (1380-1413), succeeded by his son,
Tewodros I (1413-1414). King Yeshaq (r. 1414-1430) lost his life fighting somewhere
in the sultanate of Adal.
 In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and rebelled against
Neway-Maryam (1371-80), however, he died fighting in 1386.
 Similarly, the successor of Haqadin II, Sa’d ad-Din II (C. 1386-1402) gained
initial success but defeated by king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3.
 Sa’d ad-Din II became refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413-30) killed him in
1415. Since then the area was called "the land of Sad ad-Din."
 Following the death of Sa’d ad-Din and loss of Zeila to Christian Kings, the
Muslim sultanates declined in power.
 Sa’d ad-Din’s sons who took refuge in Yemen came back to succeed their father.
Yet, Adal continued to challenge the Christian state and were successful in killing
Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq. In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed
Badlay at the battle of Yeguba.
 As a result, the son and successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-
71) sent a message of submission to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal
of the Christian Kings.
 On the death of Mohammed, Ba’ede-Mariam campaigned against Adal. Despite
initial successes, the army of Ba'ede-Mariam lost the battle in 1474.
 The successors of Ba'ede-Mariam proved weak in their dealings with the rulers
of Muslim Sultanates. At the same time, leaders of the Muslim Sultanate sought
to resolve the problem peacefully.
 As a result, Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din (1488-1518) attempted to harmonize
relations with the Christian Kingdom.
 However, among the various Sultans of the Muslim sultanates, Emir Mahfuz
carried out some effective military campaigns into the highlands and in 1517
Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor Lebne-Dengel's (r. 1508-40) force.
 His son-in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, popularly known as Ahmed
Gragn or the "left-handed" took over the leadership.
 Peaceful Interactions:
 There were wider socio-economic and cultural interactions between the
Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities. As in earlier periods, trade
continued to be the major channel of social integration.
 The long distance trade and local markets served as core areas of social ties.
Relatively, the difference in ecology of the Muslim sultanates and the Christian
Kingdom created economic interdependence, which in due course strengthened
socio-economic bondage.
 Merchants of the two regions often moved from the highlands to the coast and
vice versa. It was through such caravan merchants that the social links were
strengthened and religions spread.
 These interactions and interdependence in economic, social, cultural and
political spheres lay the foundation for modern Ethiopia.
 The period witnessed the flourishing of Geez literature as is evident from the
works of Abba Giorgis Ze-Gasicha and others and philosophies epitomized by
Zara-Ya'iqob (not to be confused with the king).
 On the Muslim side, literature had developed including the works of Arab
writers such as Ibn Fadil al Umari, Ibn Khaldun and others.
 4.5. EXTERNAL RELATIONS
1. RELATIONS WITH EGYPT
From the late thirteenth century onwards, Christian Kingdom continued to maintain
relations with Egypt, which was mainly religious in character.
In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt’s Sultan, Baybars requesting an
Abun from the Coptic Church.
 Both Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as protectors of religious minorities in
their respective domain.
 Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile (the Abay River) that
originated from Ethiopia.
In the early 14th century, Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the Copts and
destroyed their churches in Cairo. In response, Amde-Tsion demanded the
restoration of the churches and warned that the failure to do so would result in the
diversion of the Nile waters.
Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71), revealing
his imprisonment by the then Egyptian Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized
a huge army against Egypt after which the Sultan released the patriarch and sent a
delegation to the King.
Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan, established harmonious
relations between King Dawit and Egypt. The Sultan is said to have sent a piece of
the "True Cross" and in return, Dawit is said to have given a number of religious
paintings to the Sultan.
In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay requesting the
protection of Christians in Egypt.
 Three years later, however, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-Yaqob a letter stating
the demolition of the famous church of Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq).
Then Zara-Yaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53) with a strongly worded
letter. In reply to this message, Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with
complimentary gifts to the King but rejected the reconstruction of the church.
II. RELATIONS WITH CHRISTIAN EUROPE
As with the Muslim Arab world, the Christian Kingdom maintained relations
with Christian Europe.
During the medieval period, contacts between the two regions were strongly
influenced by the legend of “Prester John”.
This was followed by sustained relations in subsequent decades. For example,
it is stated that Ethiopian delegation was in attendance of Gian Galeazzo
Visconti’s coronation in Milan in 1395.
In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance. In another report,
message from an Ethiopian monarch, Amde-Tsion was presented to King
Phillip of France in 1332.
The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is the letter
of King Henry IV of England dated 1400 A.D. and addressed to “Prester John”,
the purported king of the Christian Kingdom.
 The identification of the King with “Prester John” was firmly established in the 14th
century. They even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem with the help of
this King.
 Hence, during the reign of King Dawit, the leaders of Rome, Constantinople, Syria,
Armenia and Egypt sent letters to the king in which they asked for support.
 King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly of Florentines. In 1402,
King Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by a Florentine man called Antonio
Bartoli.
 Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from Yishaq in the city of
Valentia, in 1427. Yishaq’s delegation to Europe was to ask for more artisans and
military experts.
 The embassy of the Duke of Berry consisting craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard
and a Frenchman reached Ethiopia during the reign of Yishaq.
 In 1450 a Silican Pietro Rombulo, who had been in Ethiopia since the last years of
Dawit's reign and who had previously carried out a successful trade mission to India on
behalf of the King, was now sent to Europe as Zara-Yaqob’s ambassador.
An Ethiopian priest, Fikre-Mariam and two other individuals accompanied him.
The mission was to Alphonso of Aragon, (also ruled as king of Naples and
Sicily).
 King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get political, military, and
technical assistance. Alphonso wrote a letter to Zara- Yaqob and informed him
that he sent him artisans and masons he requested.
The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are the maps of
Egyptus Novelo (c. 1454) and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which clearly
depicted many places and peoples.
Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Ethiopia in 1482. Pedros da
Covilhao/Peter de Covilham arrived at court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493.
The rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in the 15th
century strengthened the relation between the Christian Kingdom and Christian
Europe.
Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married to King Zara
Yaeqob) played an important role in the strengthening of these
relations. She also had foreseen the possibility to consolidate relations
with and get support from Portugal that was against the Tukish.
In 1508, Portugal sent a person to act as an ambassador to Christian
Ethiopia. Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-
Dengel sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal. The Portuguese
court doubted his authenticity and was received coldly.
The Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba
and Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 and remained for six
years. The objective was to establish a naval port against the
expanding Turkish power in Red Sea Area. The mission was not
successful.
 UNIT 5

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL

PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY 16TH TO
THE END OF THE 18TH C’S
 OUTLINES
 Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal and
After
 Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
 Population Movements
• Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali
• Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
• The Gadaa System
• The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
 Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities
 Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions
 The Gondarine Period and Zemene Mesafint
 5.1. CONFLICT BETWEEN THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM
AND THE SULTANATE OF ADAL AND AFTER
 The revival of long-distance trade caused competition and struggle for
control over the trade routes between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
principalities.
 This was followed by a series of wars, which were depicted as wars for
religious supremacy in historical accounts of Christian and Muslim clerics.
 Causes of the conflict:-
1. competition and struggle for control over the trade routes
2. mal-administration and exploitation of periphery made military
mobilization possible.
3. demographic pressure among the Afar and Somali pastoralists
pushing to approach Harar and the Christian Kingdom.
4. religion provided ideological justification for the wars.
 Major causes remained:- the interest to control trade routes lay at the heart of the
conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates that lasted from
1529 to 1543.
 Background to the Conflict
• Among the Muslim Sultanates, internal strife, corruption and anarchy was
intensified and a new leadership was urgently called for.
• Such leadership came from Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. The origins of
Imam Ahmed, alias “the left-handed,” are obscure.
• He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and raised by his devout
Muslim kin in one of the oases on the route to Zeila.
• He was a rigorous and ardent believer of Islam. He soldiered for Garad Abun of
Adal, who during his few years in power called for Islamic Puritanism.
• For centuries, lowland inhabiting Muslim pastoralists had wanted to expand to high
plateaus for better and enough pasturelands and their attempt was held back by the
Christian army.
• With increased population and overgrazing in Somali and Afar of eastern Ethiopia,
between the 13th and 16th centuries, raiding and counter-raiding at water holes or
animal rustling intensified.
• It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements in leadership that he mobilized the
pastoral communities of the Afar, the Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a common
cause.
• He convinced them not to fight amongst themselves but to unite and expand to the
Christian Kingdom and resolve their pressing material needs while at the same time
keep Islamic believes.
The Course of the War:
• Lebne-Dengel was enthroned when he was only eleven. Assisted by the elderly Elleni
and due to internal conflicts in Adal, the Christian state initially retained its interest and
even scoring significant victories into Muslim territory in the early 16th century.
• However, shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army in 1520, and he refused to pay
tribute and this was followed by a campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527.
• The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the territories including Bali, Dawaro,
Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and the Christian Kingdom was at risk.
• In 1528, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force and encamped about fifty kilometers
east of what is now Addis Ababa.
• There was the problem of logistics and the leadership of the army of Christian
Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat Adal’s force.
• On the other hand, enthusiastic Imam Ahmed’s army managed logistics problems with
its small-sized army. The Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership characterized
by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified command.
 As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated in one of the
most decisive engagement at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day
Mojo.
 After the victory, the Imam’s army made a large-scale control of the territories of the
Christian Kingdom including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as
Mereb Melash.
The Process of Conquest/Futuh al Habasha/
• Ahmad resumed an overall invasion of Christian territories in 1531 and occupied
Dawaro and Shawa.
• By 1535, he brought most parts of the country under his control.
• He continued his devastating conquest without any effective resistance and
reached the present provinces of Tigray and Eritrea and along the Red Sea coast.
• By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on the coast
including the Ethiopian interior.
• However, despite his success in crushing the Christian army, Ahmad was not able
to capture Libne Dingel, who remained fugitive and died in the 1540 in the
monastery of Dabra Damo, and was succeeded by his son, Gelawdewos (1540-
1559).
• Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative bureaucracy constituted from his
own men and newly recruited personnel from the Christian territories.
• One of the most illuminating figures during the war was the wife of the Imam, Bati Del
Wanbara. She was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of Adal known as Mahfuz.
• Tradition claimed that Del Wanbara had encouraged her husband to avenge the death of her
father. She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions and she is said to have
marched even in a state of pregnancy during which she was unable to use mules.
• Indeed, she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and
present day Tigray respectively.

Gelawdewos ((r. 1540-1559) and the Battle of Woyna-Dega:

• Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559), continued to face the wars with more intensity as Imam Ahmed
had received Turkish musketeers.
• In the meantime, based on earlier request made by Lebne-Dengel in 1535, about 400
Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks arrived in the Christian court in
1541Christopher da Gama.
• The Portuguese army, in August 1542 the Christian army was defeated in wofla, in today's
southern Tigray. But, in the battle, about 200 Portuguese and their leader Christopher da
Gama were killed and the leader was beheaded.
• An important anecdote that should be mentioned here is the role of Lebne-Dengel's
wife Seblewongel. She is said to have participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in
1542.
• After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his army’s, he sent his allies
back home and let his army camp.
• On the part of the Christians, preparations were made for final confrontation under
the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59).
• The Queen mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the reigning emperor how to prepare and
march for the battle of Woyna-Dega.
• Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit and run strategy, which severely
affected Imam’s army.
• Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous quality of easy mobility because they
did not know where the attacks came from.
• On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was encamped near Lake Tana, he was
attacked and killed after a fierce fighting at the battle of Woyna-Dega.
• Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident that the nobility and his army were loyal
to him. As a result, the king restored possession of almost all the northern and central
plateau.
• Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos and he was tolerant
toward them to promote national conciliation and to develop revival of smooth relations
with the Muslim world.
• Gelawdewos was able to restore many of pre-1520s territories and tributary regions. The
king attempted to reconsolidate the state through campaigns to different areas and
camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas.
• By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom. However,
the control over the Muslim dominated areas was not an easy task.
• In the period, the growing challenge to the Christian state came from:
- the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal
- the Ottoman Turks.
 -Jesuit interlude, and
- Oromo that advanced into the center.
• Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid was ready to wage
war against the Christian state for revenge.
• In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and killed the king
himself.
• Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the
Turks' force and reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa.
• However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied with the Turks
against him.
• Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend the Turks while
fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the
Oromo.
Consequences of the War
• The Muslim-Christian conflict had resulted in a number of consequences.
1. One of the most obvious was the huge human and material cost. Ahmed
Gragn also burnt so many historical churches and monasteries with their
invaluable heritage possessions and their priests and monks.
2. It is also evident that both the Muslim Sultanate and Christian Kingdom
were weakened thereby paving the way for an easy infiltration and
success of the Oromo population movement.
3. Ahmad Gragn’s destruction of the royal prison of Amba Gishen left many
contending princes free and this resulted into a dynastic conflict and
political instability in the Christian kingdom.
4. The war also led the shift of political centre of the Christian kingdom
from central Shawa to the north, towards the Lake Tana area.
5. The religious controversies in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, caused by
the Jesuit missionaries who came from Portugal following Portuguese army
and the Ottoman Turkish threat along the Red Sea coasts after Ahmad’s war
were some of long term consequences of the war.

6. Ahmad Gragn’s domination also encouraged expansion of

Islam. However, the war had also a disastrous impact on Muslims.
The Muslim states were left impoverished and the ground cleared the
way for their occupations by the Oromos.
 On the positive side, it should be restated that the war had arguably resulted
in cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia.
 Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by intermarriages among
peoples of the various cultural groups were one of these manifestations in
the long history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean between
Portugal and the Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict between the
Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities a global dimension.
 Persians, Arabs, Syrians, Egyptians, and Turks, traditional international trade
intermediaries, who were under Ottoman Turks were hit by discovery of a
seaway to India by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and tried to prevent rival
Portuguese ships from trading with India.
 Having noticed the movement of diplomatic missions between the Christian
Kingdom and Portugal, the Turks gave moral and military support to Imam
Ahmed.
 In 1540, the Imam turned to his Muslim ally, Turkey, for assistance and
regional Ottoman authorities provided two hundred Muslim musketeers and
ten cannons.
 5.2. FOREIGN INTERVENTION AND RELIGIOUS CONTROVERSIES
 The church was weakened by the wars against the sultanate of Adal. The destruction of
property and deaths of its clergy hampered the operation of the Church and therefore,
its service as an ideological arm of the state.
 The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an alliance with Roman
Catholicism as a tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry and training to restore its
lost territories.
Background for the arrival of Jesuits:-
 The background for the arrival of Catholic missionaries was led by the coming of
Portuguese diplomatic mission in 1520 and Portuguese army in 1541.
 In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came
to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism.
 The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and therefore separate, natures
of Christ-divine and human, which was contrary to Monophysite theology of EOC.
 EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect human nature
inseparable from divinity.
 The leading members of the Jesuits mission who played key role in efforts to
evangelize the country include Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and
Alfonso Mendez.
 The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59),
hoping that the rest of the society would follow suit.
 Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with the missionaries, but he
was not prepared to give in. Instead, he defended the teachings of Orthodox
Christianity in a document entitled the Confession of Faith.
 Minas and Sertse-Dengel, who succeeded Gelawdewos one after the other, were too
busy fighting against the Oromo and the Turkish forces to entertain the Jesuits in their
courts.
 The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4) who secretly
converted to Catholicism.
 But Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect the desired result. Za-
Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7), who befell a similar fate in
the hands of Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
 Susenyos, too, as was challenged by provincial leaders who refused to pay tribute,
integrated the Oromo with the forces of central government to consolidate his power
and then stabilize the country.
 Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an alliance, which he got through the
diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez.
 In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and announced it to be state religion later in
1622. In the meantime, in 1617-8 several anti-Catholic voices mounted following the
changes in liturgy and religious practices.
Even worse, with the monarch’s consent, another Spanish Jesuit, Alfonso Mendez
ordered:-
re-consecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and rebaptism of the mass.
 Besides, he called for the suspension of Jewish customs such a
male circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath.
Additional pronouncements include prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez.
fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays,
reverence for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork,
Latin Mass and Gregorian calendar to be adopted.
 The reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics and the nobility. Even loyal followers of
the emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) were opposed to the changes
initiated by the Jesuits.
 After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted and the state came to the verge
of falling apart. In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their lives in one day.
 Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas, who countered the Catholic
transformation.
Fasiledas:-
 restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state religion,
 expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including Susenyos’ uncle
and the most fervent supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos.
 By fearing another religious conflict, Emperor Fasiledas introduced a new
policy called "Close-Door Policy", which isolated the state from all Europeans
for about a century and a half.
 Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close diplomatic relations
with the Islamic world and formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim
states to ensure that no European crossed into the Christian Kingdom.
 As a result, in 1647, he concluded an agreement with the Ottoman Pasha at
Suakin and Massawa to the effect that the latter should block any European
from entering in to his territory.
 By doing so, Fasiledas was able to restore peace and order.
 Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained effective until the beginning of
the nineteenth century with the exception of secret visits by a French Doctor
Charles Jacques Poncet and the Scottish traveler James Bruce in 1700 and 1769,
respectively.
 Yet, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and controversy within
the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was divided into disputant sects and reached
its peak during the Zemene Mesafint.
 Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity as a Divine
Being the eternal birth and second, born again from St. Mary into the world as a
perfect man and perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo (United). It
was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
 Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine and accepted the
eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at the moment of his
incarnation, when he was born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him.
 This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
 Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ was first born
in eternity as divine being, was born again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by Holy
Ghost. This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
5.3. POPULATION MOVEMENTS
 The movements of people from one place to another have played important roles in
shaping the history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Population movements occurred in the Horn due to various reasons, in varied scales and
followed different directions.
 In Ethiopia and the Horn, the causes of the movements could be attributed to the region's
long socio-political conditions involving military conflicts, drought and demographic
factors.
 Population movements had extensive effects including the integration of peoples across
ethnic and religious lines.
 Major outcomes of population movements during the period include religious, ethnic and
linguistic interactions and intermingling of peoples through intermarriage, change of
abode, original culture and evolution of new identities.
 I. POPULATION MOVEMENTS OF THE ARGOBA, AFAR, AND SOMALI
 Causes:
1. The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late
15th and the early 16th centuries was partly responsible for the population movement of the
Argoba, Afar and Somali.
2. The demographic pressure on environment gave background for the population movement.
 This population movement was probably triggered off by: -population growth and
shortage of grazing land, and
-finally, mounting pressure of Oromos, who began their
expansion in the 15th Century.
A.The Argoba: the Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and Muslim state
formation in the Horn.
 Towards the end of the 13th century, with the decline of the sultanate of Shewa, the sultanate
of Ifat, in which the Argoba were dominant, became the center of Muslim resistance.
 On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al Ghazi, the Argoba joined the Afar and
the Somali against the Christian Kingdom.
 The area inhabited by the Argoba was also a target of the expanding Christian
Kingdom and was the major center of conflict. This was because the major
caravan trade routes passed through Argoba territory.
B. The Afar: before the 16th century, due to drought, the Afar moved towards the
east until they reached the middle Awash.
 Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the Afar's territory.
 As a result, the region was the centre of competition between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates to control the trade routes.
 Besides being actors in the conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurized the Afar to
move into different directions to avoid the risk of the conflicts.
 In the 16th century, their pastoral economy helped them to survive the destructive
effects of the wars.
C. The Somali: their territory laid in the medieval competition for the control of trade
routes.
 The population movement of the Somali was a strong force behind the military
strength of the Imam.
 However, the population movement of the Somali did not last for long as they
returned to their home base following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
II. GADAA SYSTEM AND THE OROMO POPULATION MOVEMENT (1522-1618)

A. The Gadaa System

• The Oromo population movement of the 16th century cannot be better understood
without considering the Gadaa system.
• The Gadaa system was an institution through which the Oromo: --socially
organized
-administered their affairs,
-defended their territories, maintained law and order, and
-managed their economies.
• Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa system emerged.
However, it is clear that for long the society organized their politics,
economy, social, cultural, and religious affairs through the Gadaa institution.
• The account by Abba Bahrey indicates that during the early 16 th century, the
system fully functioned because of which the Oromo were well organized.
• Thus, it is reasonable to think that the Oromo had practiced the Gadaa
system long before the 16th century movement of the Oromo.
• Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar and Gadaa centers suggest that
the system evolved from the earlier Cushitic age-set social organization.
• Time computation and recording history was based on the eight-year
segment of time. In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa period, 5-
gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation and nine generations
represented an era.
• Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during various eras because of various internal and
external factors. For instance, the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was instituted after interruption
for nearly two generations. It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu that became the
central Chaffe (assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu until 1900.
• The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as: -
-periodic succession and power sharing to prevent a one-man rule,
-representation of all lineages, clans and confederacies.
-served as a mechanism of socialization, education, maintenance of peace
and order, and social cohesion.
-Gadaa constituted rules of arara (conflict resolution), guma
(compensation) and rakoo (marriage).
-provided a socio-political framework that institutionalized relationship
between seniors and juniors and egalitarian relations among members.

• The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into age-grades and generation sets
delineating members' social, political, and economic responsibilities. Ten age- grades and five
classes operated in parallel.
• The system helped the members of age-sets to develop a consistent and stable sense of self and
others. Sons joined the first grade as members of Gadaa class (generation class or set) forty years
after their fathers.

Age-grades and their roles

Gade Grade Age Roles

Dabale Birth-8 years

Socialization
Game 9-16 years

Folle 17- 24 years Military training, agriculture, etc.

Qondala 25-32 years Military service

Raba-Dori 33-40 years Candidates for political power

Luba 41-48 years Leaders of Gadaa government

Yuba 49-80 years Senior advisors, educators and ritual leaders

• The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The head of the government was known as Abba-
Gadaa and assisted by several representatives from among the generation set.
• These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Chaffe (head of the
assembly), Abba-Dula (war leader), Abba Sera (father of law), Abba Alanga
(judge), Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councillors.
• In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable roles in
power transfer and legitimizing the ruling gadaa class.
• Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution, which helped them to
form sisterhood and solidarity. Women from childhood to old age i.e. guduru
(pre-pubescent), qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba
and Yuba) and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) were believed to have
sacred power.
• They involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict resolution, thanks-giving
and others. The kalale were also privileged to support and advise the ruling class.
• The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical power transfer from one Gadaa
class to the next every eight years.
• With some minor differences in nomenclature in different parts of Oromo territories, the five
Gadaa classes (generation sets) are listed below:
The Five Gadaa Classes

Fathers Sons
Melba Harmufa
Mudana Robale
Kilole Birmaji
Bifole Mul’ata
Michille Dulo
B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
 Causes:-
 A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the Oromo population movement of the
16th and 17th centuries.
1. Natural factors include demographic pressure and subsequent need for land to accommodate
the growing human and livestock population.
2. The conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates from the 13th to the 16th centuries
might have pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo groups to leave the lands they inhabited for other areas.
 Courses of the Movement:-
 In 1522, when the population movement began, the Oromo were already organized under Borana
and Barentu confederacies.
 The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed through a corridor between Mount Walabu
and Lake Abbaya. When they reached half way between Lakes Abbaya and Hawassa then
westward and across the Bilatte River to the southwest.
 From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.
 The first Gadaa i.e Melba (1522-1530) fought and defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led by
Fasil and occupied Bali.
 Gadaa Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River.
 The Kilole Gadaa (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian regiment Adal Mabraq.
 Gadaa Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
 The Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, and Jan Amora; on Adal led
by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
 The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot,
Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
 In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale gadaa
(1570-78) at Woyna Daga, but Robale recovered by defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force.
 The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed
the Daragoti regiment.
 The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray.
 In the early 17th century, the Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and Mudena (1610-18)
expanded to West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa.
 Others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.
 Why the Oromos so successful:
• The wars between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates,
• The organization of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played crucial role in the success
of the Oromo population movement.
• In the course of their movement into various regions, different Oromo branches established
Gadaa centres.
The Five major Gadaa centres
Gadaa Centers Respective Oromo clans
Oda Nabee Tulama
Oda Roba Sikko-Mando (Arsi)

Oda Bultum Itu-Humabenna

Oda Bisil Mecha
Oda Bulluq Jawwi Mecha

 Other places, which became Gadaa centers, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e Bokko of
Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garado of Waloo, etc.
 Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha,
Babbo Koyye of Jimma and others established Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal laws
in their respective areas.
• However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through the office of
Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated at Madda Walabu and formed
alliances during times of difficulty.
• Besides, they obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera (law) through sending
their delegates to Madda-Walabu, the central chaffe until the pan-Oromo
assembly was forbidden in 1900 due to the political influence of the
Ethiopian state.
• In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource allocation formula
including land. Land holding system to regulate resource and their
interaction among different clans is known as the qabiyye system.
• The system established rights of precedence (seniority) in possession of
land. Accordingly, place names were given the names of the pioneer as a
marker of qabiyye rights.
 5.4. INTERACTION AND INTEGRATION ACROSS ETHNIC AND
RELIGIOUS DIVERSITIES
• The political, social, and economic processes of the medieval period were the
major factors for the people's interactions across regions.
• Such interactions occurred during peace and conflict times. The cases in point
were the trade contacts and conflicts to control trade routes, religious expansion,
and territorial expansion and population movements.
• One of the major consequences of the interactions in the medieval period
particularly in the population movement of the 16th century was the integration of
peoples across ethnic and religious diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
• It is apparent that territorial and religious expansion by the Christian kingdom
diffused Christian tradition from north to the south. Similarly, the wars of Imam
Ahmed and the population movements of the Argoba, the Afar and the Somali
caused the expansion of Islam into the central parts of Ethiopia.
• One consequence of the Oromo population movement was that it put an end to the
wars between the Christian and Muslim states as well as the southward expansion
of the Christian state.
• At larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples brought far-reaching
integrations among peoples across ethnic and religious background.
• The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption mechanisms: Guddifacha
and Moggasa.
• Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent. In this system, the
child enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a biological child.
• Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos commonly known as Oromsu.
Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of individuals or groups to a clan
through oath of allegiance with all the rights and obligations that such membership
entailed.
• Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the clan. The adopted
groups gained both protection and material benefits. Thus, it lead complete
assimilation and disappearance of Bizamo, and Damot as well as mutual
assimilation with Ennarya.
• The process significantly contributed to the social cohesions, national integration,
and the revival of long-distance trade.
• The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-cultural values and
institutions. A number of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo adopted
Gadaa system and Oromo language. E.g. Sidama and Gedeo adopted the Gadaa
system.
• The Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and traditions of the people with whom
they came into contact. E.g. the adoption of monarchical systems and the
integration of the Oromo to the Christian and Muslim states.
• It is important to mention the rise of nobles in the northern Oromo in politics
particularly during the Gondar period, Zemene-Mesafint and the making of modern
Ethiopia.
 5.6. THE GONDARINE PERIOD AND ZEMENE-MESAFINT
1. THE GONDARINE PERIOD
• The period of Gondar begins from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle when
the political center of Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar area.
• Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in 1571.
• Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar like at Qoga,
Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
• Gondar was founded in 1636 by Fasiledas as his political seat.
• Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three successive emperors:
Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).
• Among the major reforms during these periods were:
- the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion, and
-the establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to solve problems power
rivalry.
•
• AtseYohannes I & he established a library & separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem
• His son Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system, introduced a system of land measurement in
Begemder, taxes, and customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
• The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the leadership of his own son, Tekle-
Haymanot, ushered in political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning of
reigning monarchs.
• Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of his father and was in turn
assassinated by Tewoflos. Tewoflos was again killed by Yostos, who was also poisoned and
replaced by Dawit III, who himself was poisoned and replaced by Bakafa.
• Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his followers and his wife Etege
Mentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728.
• The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement of the Oromo in politics and
the army.
• From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul
(1732-1767) dominated the Gondarine court politics.
• Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69).
Following his death in 1767, Etege Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito, her
daughter-in-law from Wollo.
• To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal court, Mentewab sought the
alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was politically astute and military powerful.
• Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation and refused to return to Tigray
although demanded by Iyoas. This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his
replacement by an old man Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes
II and put his son Takla-Haymanot II (1769-77) on power. This marked the onset of the
period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).
B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period
• Gondar became the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art, and
crafts for more than two centuries.
• The first three kings were successful both political and cultural developments. This enabled
Gondar to repeat the splendors of Aksum and Lalibela.
The cultural achievements of the period led some writers to describe
Gondarine period in history as Ethiopian Renaissance.
• Architecture: when Gondar served as a permanent capital, for about one
hundred fifty years, Ethiopian kings built significant secular buildings like
castles, bridges, residences, bath, library, towers, fortifications and there
are squared, round and unknown shape of churches.
• In the cities compound the most impressive building known as Fasil
Gemb, there are different palaces corresponding to Emperor Fasiledas,
Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa and regent Queen Mentewab.
• The Gondarine architecture would have started before the reign of
emperor Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle at about
1586, at Guzara near Enfranz, and built a very fine bridge near his palace
at Guzara, and Emperor Susenyos likewise erected a bridge over Blue Nile
at Alata. Even it goes back to the reign of Lebne-Dengel (r.1508-1540)
that is the pointed oval dome over the center of the church of Bahir Gimb
Mikael considered as built by him.
• Painting: With a wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood,
ornaments, weapons and other accessories especially, the churches built by
Queen Mentwab were known by beautiful paintings, cross and an art works.
• Literature: The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of
manuscripts. Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian
Saints and the Litanies, and many other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were
also produced.
• Gondar is also known for its traditional medicine, music and poetry.
• Trade and Urbanization: Gondar was a commercial center that connected long
distance trade routes of the southern region with Massawa and Metemma in the
Ethio-Sudan border.
• Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange. The appearance of daily market
was known.
• With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of foreign communities
like Indians, Greeks and Armenians. The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000
population.
• In addition to its political and commercial importance, it served as religious center of
Christians, Muslims and Bete-Israel. Besides, it served as the center of Ethiopian
Orthodox Church (residence of the abun and Ichege) until the mid of 19th Century.
• Many of Orthodox churches served as education centers (known by excellence in
teaching aqwaqwam), liturgical chanting was centered at Gondar.
II.The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
• Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual position of political power was in
the hands of different regional lords.
• Zemene Mesafent was the period when Ethiopia was divided within itself with no
effective central authority; the regional lords constantly fought against each other for
expansion of their territory and to become the guardian of the king.
• The period lasts from the time Ras Michael Sehul "assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769
to 1855, when Kasa Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.
• Ras Mika’el who was a king maker in the period took strong measures against the
nobility. These measures made him highly unpopular because of which coalitions of
lords of Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo that defeated him at the battle of Sarba-
Kussa in 1771.
• The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were Tigray, Semen,
Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa.
• When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty” was the leading power during the
Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debre-tabor. Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq)
was considered as the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
• Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825) who made incessant
struggle against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of
Agame.
• In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of
Simen. Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827.
• The period of zemene mesafint was brought to an end by Kasa Hailu of Qwara
through a series of battles that lasted from 1840s to 1855.
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
• absence of effective central government;
• the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
• the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia;
• rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the position of king maker;
• establishment of fragile coalition to advance political interests;
• Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional role of unifying the
state due to doctrinal disputes;
• Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door Policy.”
• In addition to the above features, there were developments in terms of literature,
arts, architecture etc during the period.
 Chapter Six: Internal Interactions and
External Relations in Ethiopia and the Horn,
1800-1941
6.1. THE NATURE OF INTERACTIONS AMONG
PEOPLES AND STATES OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

A. The State of Qabena: in the southern portion of central Ethiopia, Hadiya, Alaba,
Kambata, Gurage and Silte constituted independent political entities in the period. They
economically, depended on agriculture. Local merchants actively involved in local trade
and to some extent in the long distance trade. Trade routes that connected the interior
with the coast passed through these territories. Among these, the Gurage land was an
important market centre and political entity. Important trade centers such as Soddo and
Ayamallel were established by King Sahile Sillasie (r.1813-47) of Shawa. The Gurage
leaders were known as Abegaz or Azmatch combined political and military authority. In
1875, Gurage land was divided into five Negariti or drum districts of Qabena, Walani,
Gadabalo, Abso& Mohir. However, western Gurage and Hadya State of Qabena emerged
as a strong political entity. It became a centre of Muslim revivalist movement in the
northeast of the Gibe River. Stirred by Muslim refugees from Wallo, and with possible
connections even with Mahdists Sudan, the movement swept across a large part and was
attended by a fast rate of Islamization.
 B. THE GIBE STATES: TOWARDS THE BEGINNING OF THE 19TH
CENTURY, SEVERAL MONARCHICAL STATES

• i. Limmuu-Inaaryaa: Limmu-Inarya was the earliest of the Gibe states. It was formed by Bofoo/Abbaa Gomol
(1800-1825) who abdicated in favor of his son, Ibsaa/Abbaa Bagiboo (1825-1861).It reached the height of its power
during Ibsaa‟s reign, when Agalo, Badifolla etc. were brought under control. Ibsa was succeeded by A/Bulgaa (1861-
1883
• ii. Guumaa: Jiilchaa A/Bal‟oo of Ciraa killed Sarbaaroodaa of Daagoyyee; began state formation and succeeded by
his son Onchoo (1810-1830) who was in turn followed by Jawwee (1840-1854). It was from Guma locality/Onjaa that
slave raiders captured Ajjaamee/ Bilillee. German prince Herman Pickler Muskau purchased her at Cairo in 1837;
changed her name to Mahbuba meaning beloved and made her his mistress. However, she suddenly died of poisoned
food she ate in fortnight on October 27, 1840.
• iii. Gomma: formed by A/Bookee (1800-1829) who was succeeded by his son A/Manoo (1829-1840) who conquered
Qattuu and converted to Islam by Muslim Ulama/scholars. A place called Coocee-Kattaa Muudugaa in Gomma is said
to have been the origin of coffee.
• iv. Jimma: Ose Kobbii (A/Faaroo) and Daangilaa (A/Magaal) began state formation that was completed by
Sannaa/Abbaa Jifaar I (r.1830-1855) who formed Jimma Kakaa/confederacy and left a consolidated state to his
successors like A/Reebuu (1855-1859) and Abbaa Booqaa (1859-1861). There were iron mining center at Daakkaanoo
and smelting center at Kittoo.
• v. Geeraa: formed by Tulluu Gunjii (1835-1838), followed by A/Baassoo and A/Raagoo I (1838-1848).
C. The Leeqaa States:

• Leeqaa-Naqamtee was founded by Bakaree Godaanaa in 1840, and reached its height under his successors
Moroda and Kumsa. Leqa-Qellam was located in the south western of Wallagga. It was founded by Tullu and
became powerful under his son, Jote being centered at Gidaam and controlling the areas around Sayyo-Dambi
Doolloo.

• D. Iluu: the Tumme clan leader Caalii Shoonoo set up the well consolidated richest state of Ilu-Abba Bor. It was
from Ilu that Hika/Onesmus Nesib/Abba Gammachis was captured and sold in to slavery nine times before
Menkulluu Swedish mission freed, and educated him.

• Each Oromo monarchicalstate had officials like Abbaa Gurmu/prime minister, Abbaa Mizan/ treasurer & foreign
affair minister, Daango/Daggi/Abbaa Keella/immigration chief, Lammi.

• ambassador, Abbaa Burqaa/Qoro/governor, Abbaa Ganda/Abbaa Laga/district chief, Abbaa Buusii/Abbaa

Funyoo/tax head, Abbaa Jigaa/murder judge and Abbaa-Qawwee/body-guard.
 Trade and Trade Route
In 1800s, the Ethiopian land was divided into territories as north and south Abbay. T he nominal power in a
north was Gonderian kingdom while in the south there were v arious states and peoples with their own
kingdom. In the 19thC, there were two major trade routes. The starting point of both the trade routes was at
south- west part.

• The First Trade Route, Began from Bonga, the capital city of Kefa, Connected the south with the north by
passing through different trade center (Market) such as Tiren (in Jima), Seka (Asendabo (Horro Gudroo)
Ba sso (Gojam) and Darite in Begemdir. From Darita, the trade route entered into Gondar which
formed two branches, the one runs west ward to Sudan, through Mettema while the other one runs to
north ward through Adwa and entered Massawa as far as Re d Sea.

• The Second Trade Route: Connected the trade of the Ethiopian region with Zeila and Berbera Started from
Jiren and run to Seka and changed its direction to the south East. It passed Sodo and Rogge near mount
Yarer, Aliyu Amba and entered Har ar. From Harar it forms two branches that run to Zeila and Berbera.
 Items of Trade
• Export Items: coffee, gold, ivory rhinoceros horn, skin, civet and slaves

• Import Item s: mirror, cowries shell, cotton and cloth and iron ware

• Medium of Exchange: Amole, Iron Bar, and Maria Theresa

• Major Merchants

• Afkala – Muslim Oromo Merchants – Western Merchants

• Argoba – Eastern Merchants

• Jebarti – Northern Merchants

• Jelaba – western Merchant (along Ethio- Sudanese)

 Power Rivalry
• Power rivalries had an old history in Ethiopia and the Horn despites varying degrees of strength on prevailing
economic, military and political conditions. As discussed under "Zemene Mesafint," there were rivalries among
regional lords. Building imperial power on the debris of "Zemene Mesafint," required the use of forces to
subjugate the regional powers seeking autonomy. Empire builders fought their ways to power with centrifugal
powers.The man who ended the Era of Princes was Kasa Hailu, who had become a free-lance soldier under his
brother Kinfu in crushing Egyptians at Wadkaltabu in 1837. When Ras Ali II (Ali Alula/Ali Abba Bula) gave
Quara to his mother Empress Manan/Halima, Kasa moved to jungle and became a bandit. Manan sent
expeditions under generals like Wandeyrad against him, but he easily defeated them at Illoha, Chago & Segel.
Ali then recognized him as Qwar governor and arranged for him to marry Tawabach Ali in 1847. Yet, when his
army incurred heavy casualties from Egyptian forces at Dabarki in 1848, Kasa was forced to turn his attention
first against regional lords and confront foreign enemy. He rapidly defeated Goshu Zawde of Gojjam at Gur
Amba on November 27, 1852; Biru Alighaz, Aben, Yazew & Balew at Togusa (Gorgora Bichen) on April 12,
1853; Ali at Ayshal on 29 June, 1853 and Wube of Tigray at Darasge on 8 February, 1855. Then Coptic bishop,
Abuna Salama anointed Kasa on 9 February 1855, as King of Kings, Tewodros II.
 Con’t
• Emperor Tewodros (r.1855-1868) faced stiff resistance from local powers. In Gojjam Tadla Gwalu, a member
of the local dynasty, remained contender to Tewodrosuntil he was crushed at Injbara. In Walqayt, Tiso/Tasew
Gobaze threatened his authority to the level of once even occupying Gondar. In Lasta, Wag Shum
GobazeGabramadhin later Emperor Takla-Giyorgis (r. 1868-1871) raised the standard of rebellion after he
had seen his own father executed by Tewodros. In Shawa, Sayfu Sahla-Sellase and Bazabeh, the man whom
Tewodros himself had appointed made open resistance. Similarly, in Wallo, Dejjach Liban Amade the
emperor's appointee, joined by an even stronger opponent, Amade Bashir, who remained Tewodros's
rivalalong with Adare Bille and Warqit & Mastawit. Niguse and Tassama Waldamicha'el of Simen also posed
serious challenges up on Tewodros. In 1867, the growing oppositions from his rivals forced Emperor
Tewodros, who had dreamt of uniting Ethiopia, to retreat and establish his last stronghold in Maqdela. In
addition, in the military expedition of the British to Maqdela in the late 1867, Bezbez Kasa Mercha(Yohannis
IV) gave guidance and material support to the British troops. He also received a large quantity of firearms
from General Robert Napier, the commander of British expedition
 Con’t
• Following the death of emperor Tewodros in 1868, a war broke out for emperorship. Three contenders for the
throne namely Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, Ras Kasa Mercha of Tigray and Nigus Menilek of Shawa aspired to be
emperors. In fact, they reigned in that order with the throne names Takla-Giorgis (r.1868-71), Yohannis (r.1872-
89) and Menilek II (r.1889-1913). Like Tewodros, Yohannis faced challenges from power contenders from
Gojjam, Gondar, Yejju, Hamasen and Shawa. In Gojjam, Adal Tasama (Nigus Tekle-Haymanot) assumed power
by killing his contender Dasta Tadla, although Yohannis tolerated his regional dynasty. The strongest regional
challenger of Emperor Yohannis was Menilek II of Shawa. Menilek was calling himself king of kings, expanding
his territories towards Wallo and contacting foreign countries independently. This serious rival also did not pay
tribute. Yohannis did not tolerate him but his confrontation with Egyptian compelled him to postpone his decisive
war with Menilek. In 1878, peace initiatives came from Menilek because of the probably military superiority of
Yohannis. This was concluded at Liche Agreement on which Menilek agreed to pay tribute, drop the title of King
of Kings, and stop his independent dealing with foreign powers. However, both Tekle-Haymanot and Menilek did
not remain loyal to Emperor Yohannis. For instance, in 1888, they made a plot on the emperor when he was
troubled by simultaneous aggression from the Italians and Mahdists. However, despite the continuing challenges
of regional forces, Yohannis was able to maintain his sovereignty until his death at Metema in the battle with the
Mahdists in 1889.
 The Making Of Modern Ethiopian State

• Process of territorial expansion & making of modern Ethiopia conducted from early 1870s to 1900.

• it was territorial competition with the plan of resource control and empire building.

• The difference was the level of their strength, ambition and foreign relations. Quite better in this case
were states that existed in the northern and central Ethiopia who were able to establish military
strength by exploiting their access to the sea and relations with colonial powers. As indicated above,
Tewodros II, Yohannis IV and others made empire formation their project and fought their ways. Yet,
the most successful was Emperor Menilek II.

• The conquest driven by interest to control land and trade routes was not new to Menilek II. What
made Menilek expansion new were the intensity and the degree of success. Besides, his conquest
coincided with European powers colonial expansion in Africa with whom he concluded partition of
territories. The control of resourceful centers that enabled the emperor to build military muscle as
well as the determination of his generals mainly Ras Gobana counted for the success.
 Con’t
• One causative factor of territorial expansion to resource rich areas was the Great Famine kifu Qen
(Evil day) 1888-92. It was the most recalled drought, famine and epidemic in the history of Ethiopia
The disaster forced Menelik II to march towards south and southwest for resources.

• Before 1870s, following his predecessors footsteps, Menilek had already subjugated the Tuulamaa
Oromo. Yet, in Tuulamaa and Eastern Maccaa territories, most defiant of Shawan conquest were
Tufaa Munaa of Gimbichu, Ashee Anbassaa of Salaalee, Duulaa Ara‟ee of Gullallee, Cangaree
Sookilee and Birratuu Goolee of Meettaa and Bachoo,Turee Galatee of Sooddoo, Birratee Waaraa of
Kuttaayee and Caboo chiefs. However, the Abbichuu noble Goobana Daaccii collaborated with
Menilek to crush these resistances and conquer Ada‟aa of Moojoo Boxora, Bachoo Shabo Borde,
Caacaa of Daabee, Cuukkoo of Roobii Garasuu, Eekkaa of Habeebee Tufaa, Jamoo of Tiksee Jimaa,
Jiddaa of Dooyyoo, Mandiidaa of Cangi/Gaarii Duufaa, Sooddoo of Tufo Kalu, Sulultaa of Siida
Dabalee etc

• In 1875-76, Menilek made campaign towards the Gurage. The northern Gurage, the Kistane peaceful
submitted because of their religious affinity, geographical proximity and fear of surrounding Sooddoo
Oromo. On the other hand, the western Gurage, led by Hasan Enjamo of Qabena which had elements
of Hadiya-Gurage coalition, inflicted a number of defeats on the Shawan forces until Menilek's
general, Ras Goobanaa crushed Hasan‟s forces in 1888 at Jaldu Meda
• In the western side of Gibe River, Nigus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam had first established his control in mid 1870s.
Yet, Horroo forces led by Abishee Garbaa Hurruubaa overwhelmed Gojjamite forces led by Tekle-Haymaanot‟s
commander, Ras Darasu in vicinity of Coomman valley. However, Qadiidaa Waannabee of Jimmaa Raaree
persuaded Abishee to surrender after which Abishe was taken through Kokor to prison in Gojjam where it was said
he chewed his fingers from anger & frustration and died. Gojjamites then installed Abishe‟s brother, puppet
Fandalala. Competition between the Gojjame and the Shawan was terminated with the defeat of the Gojjam forces at
the battle of Imbaaboo on 6 June 1882. In fact, the Imbaaboo victory was Menilek's passport to the extensive and
rich regions of the southwest.

• Yet, Garbii Jiloo of Leeqaa-Billoo, Tuuchoo Daannoo of Leeqaa-Hordaa, Ligdii Bakaree of Leeqaa-Naqamtee,
Geendaa Busan of Sibuu-Siree, Mardaasaa Konche of Nonnoo Migiraa, Turii Jagan of Noonnoo Roggee and leaders
of Limmuu & Gudayyaa formed confederation. Their coalition devastated Abyssinians led by Dasta, Dilinassawu &
Tasamma Nado at Gurra Doobbaa in Bonayyaa near Waamaa and chased them up to Gudar River. League of
Waaccuu Dabaloo of Sibuu Gaantii, Joorgoo Dagaagoo of Noolee Kaabbaa, leaders of Wambaraa and others also
bitterly fought conquerors and their tutelages like Morodaa & Amantee Bakaree at Samboo Darroo between Gimbii
& Najjoo. Guumaa King A/Joobir and his brother A/Diggaa fought at Bakkee Ganjii against Gojjame. Firrisaa
A/Foggii of Guumaa made Jihad versus Menilek scoring victoriesat places like Santo from 1889-1901. Yet, while
Firrisaa‟s brother, Wayyeessaa died in battle, another brother Imama/Qoroo of Siddii fled to Menilek‟s court and his
sister, Alima/Ballatishachawu A/Joobir married Ras Tasamma. A/Booraa of Gommaa crushed Shawans led by Basha
• Aboyye at Tijjee while A/Boossoo was beaten by Räs Damissawu Nasїbu‟s army in1900 after series fighting. There
were also skirmishes at places like Bakkee Qacoo in Geeraa. Ras Tasamma‟s army crushed resistance from A/Quxal
of Gachii on upper course of Dhidheessaa and conquered Bunnoo. Fatansaa Ilu‟s forces made attacks upon
Tasamma‟s troops at Gabba & Qarsaa Googilaa, but Fatansaa‟s forces were routed and he was imprisoned at
Barrooyii.

• Menilek encountered fierce resistance from the Arssi who fought with spears and arrows against firearms from 1878
to 1886. The Arssi were led by notables like Leenjisoo Diigaa, who scored victory at Doddotaa; Gosaa Dilamo who
crushed Shawans at Qaldhataa and Gooroo Bubbee/Roobaa Buttaa. Menilek barely escaped with life in December
1883. Yet, with intelligence service of koso vendor widow Halkoo & Roobalee Kuullaa, and submission of Suufaa
Kuusoo of Jaawwii & Daammuu Ussuu of Hexoosaa as well as biological warfare with smallpox, Shawan forces led
by Ras Darge Sahlasillase made the final assault on the Arssi at Azule on 6 Sept. 1886. This was followed by
Aannolee amputations (female right breast and male right limbs were cut off, accompanied by castrations in the
extreme cases).

• Similarly, the eastern Oromo/Itu Humbanna led by Bakar Waaree and the Harari led by Emir Abdullahi (r.1885-1887)
repulsed the initial Shawan thrust led by Dajjach Walda-Gabr'el. Yet, the eastern Oromo and the Harari were
outgunned and outmaneuvered in the final engagement at Calanqoo, on 6 January 1887. Menilek‟s cousin, Dajjach
(later ras) Makonnen Walda-Mikael was appointed a governor of the province.
• Furthermore, Dawuro-Konta and Kambata were occupied in 1889 and 1890 respectively. Ogaden, Baalee and Sidamo were controlled
in 1891. Gamo Gofa was conquered in 1894. Wolayta, the powerful southern kingdom, was incorporated after one of the bloodiest
campaigns of the whole process of expansion. Kawa (King) Tona's instigation of the [Dawro] and the Konta peoples, to the west of
Wolayta against Menilek's authority added fuel to the confrontation. Menilek personally led the campaign. He was accompanied by
Ras Mikael of Wallo, Fit. Gabayyahu/Gaboo Gurmuu, Liqa Makwas Abata Bwayalaw, Dajjach Baalchaa Saafoo/Abbaa Nafso, Ras
Walda-Giorgis and Abba Jifar II of Jimma. Wi as collaboration of Wolayta personalities like Wazitu Wabilo, Lomina and Adaro, the
Shawans defeated Tona in 1894. Nonetheless, Wolaytan incessant stiff opposition led to Wolaytan genocide by Menilek‟s forces as
explained by Venderheym.

• Gedeo was annexed in 1895.Fit Habtegiorgis Dinagdee/Abba Machal/Abba Mala built a fort at Megga and took over Booranaa &
Konso in 1896-97. The years after the battle of Adwa marked the success of Menelik to extend his control over peripheries. The
successes were partly because of military superiority and boundary agreement with colonial powers. The process of the incorporation
of Kafa paralleled the Wolayta experience in terms of the human cost. The final battle between the Shawan forces and Kafa took place
in 1897. Shawan force was led by Ras Walda-Giorgis, Dajjach Tasamma of Gore, Dajjach Demise Nasib of Horro Guduru & Arjo and
Abba Jifar II of Jimma. Ras Walda-Giorgis became the Governor of Kafa after the defeat of Tato Gaki Sherocho. Beni Shangul was
occupied after Fadogno battle and campaign up to Famaka in 1897/8.Waldagiyorgis also conquered Goldea; Russian Dajjazmatch
Leontieff conquered Maji and extended upto Turkana Lake in 1898/9. Tasamma Nado also conquered up to Baro (Sobat).

• As in the case of the medieval period women were the most decisive figures in the modern politics in Ethiopia and the Horn. Like
Itege Mintiwab, Empress Menen and Tewabech (daughter of Ras Ali and Tewodros‟ wife), Empress Taytu (wife of emperor Menelik),
apart from her roles in the centralization process, she played significant roles in military affairs using their spirited personalities.
Empress Taitu commanded her own contingent of about 5000 infantry and 600 cavalrymen and accompanied her husband to the Battle
of Adwa. She was considered as an intelligent, wise, and self-assured woman to whom Menilek owe much for his success.
 Foreign Aggressions in 19th century
• Egypt in 1837 at Wad Katabu against Dejjach Kinfu

• Egypt in 1848 at Dabarrki against Dejjazmach Kassa Hailu

• British in 1868 at Aroge and Maqdala against Atse Tewodros II

• Egypt in 1875 at Gundet against Yohanis IV

• Egypt in 1876 at Gura against Yohanis IV

• Mahdist in 1885 at Kufit against Yohannis IV(Ras Alula)

• Mahdist in 1887 at Sarwuha against Teklhyamanot of Gojjam

• Mahdist in 1888 at Gute dili against Ras Gobana

• Mahdist in 1889 at Metema against Yohannis IV

• Italians in 1887 at Dogali against Alula

• Italian in 1895 at Qoatit and Senafe against Ras Mengesha

• Italians in 1895 at Amba Alage against Fit Gabayahu

• Italians in 1896 at Adwa against Ethiopians.

Consolidation of Political Power( 1896-1909)

•  Ruling class secured their position

•  Independence of the country recognized by states ,and European
legation were opened
•  Boundary delimitation under took in series of agreement
(secured her borders).
• Italian colony of Eritrea (1900, 1902, 1908)
• French- Somali March 1907
• Anglo- Egyptian (Sudan) 1902
• British East Africa (Kenya) 1907
• Italy- Somali (1908)
• The ruling class established their center at Addis Ababa, Collect tributes from South,
South- West and Southeast enjoyed comfort of urban life, Despite its foundation as
capital in 1886 got permanence due to
• Issue of land charter (1907)
• Introduction of eucalyptus tree (Australia)
• The construction of railway (1917)
• The residence of foreign merchants The opening foreign legation
• The Inception of political Rivalry & foreign threat
• 1906 powers struggle among the ruling class owing to issue of succession -
• Illness of Menelik
• Death of his heir (Ras Mekonnen)
• Threat from Europe have colonies adjacent of Eth, Britain, France & Italy
• Opening of Germany legation (1905)
• Tripartite treaty (1906) Dec
•  Objectives of the treaty were to avoid possible conflict of interest and Shut of other rivals
from economic activities in Ethiopia
• What w as the remedy taken by Menelik II tackle internal and external threat?
•  Established the first council of ministers consisting of 9 ministries War,
comm. Foreign Affair, public work, Agriculture, finance, justice, pen, palace, and Interior
• Recruited high- ranking civil and military office
• No educated personnel modern bureaucratic arrangement
• Same old palace officials
• Confusion of duties & responsibilities
•  In1909 Menelik designation of heir to his throne & regent. Upon his death in 1913,
Menelik was succeeded by his grandson, Iyasu, who reigned only brief ly. Iyasu was
overthrown with the support of the Crown Council in 1916 for, among other things, having
embraced the Muslim faith in violation of dynastIc law.
The Challenge of Taytu

•  Secured her political position through Marital strategy, thus she preparedi
ntentionally Mentewab Welle to Ras Mekonnen, Gugsa Welle to Zawditu and
Roman Work Mengesha to Lij Iyasu
•  Arranged promotion and demotion- SHUMSHIR
•  Showan nobility opposition, organized Mahal Safari (different military
units of palace) Blessing of bishop Abune Mathews
•  1910 Taytu removed from government power
• Lij I yasu ( 1913 -1916): Reform s and the coup d’état Against him
•  Death of Ras Bedewed Tessema Nadew marked the beginning of Iyasu’s
direct rule and the Showan nobility frustration increased
•  Iyasu’s polygamous nature reflected in his marriage
• Roman Work (Aster) • Polygamous marriage
• SableWongel Hailu (King T/Hay of •  First serious challenge to Iyasu’s
Gojam grad daughter power was Ras Abate Buayalew. Abate is
• said to be planned to bring back the
Jima Aba Jifar daughter
regency, by taking for himself the position
• Haj- Abdullahi of Harar
•  The introduction of significant
• Abu- Bakr of Afar social & economic reforms
• Askala Dejazmach Jote of Wollega •  Attempt to give Ethiopian
• Personal Weakness of Iyasu: Muslims equal status through integrating
them his administrative hierarch
• Play- boy nature
•  Gave financial support of the
• Lack of responsibility,
establishment of mosques
• Tactless in his move
 Reforms Under Iyasu
•  Established system of auditing on government property
•  Formed Municipal police (Trumbule)
•  Establish separate Department of education (secular education system)
•  Improvement on traditional detection method Lebashay & quragna
•  Rearrangement in the way of tax collection (Asrat Safari)
•  However, the reforms, became overshadowed because his weakness, opposition of his
opponents
•  1914 Ras Michal- Negus of Tigre & Wollo, Begemdir, Gojjam (1915
•  Substitute Dejazmach Balcha in the pace of Negadras Haile Georgis to be the governor of Sidamo
•  Fitawarari H/Georgis- Chairman of council of minster
•  Removed Dejazmach Teferi, from his family fief, Hara transferred in to Kaffa
•  colonial powers stand against Iyasu owing to his close relation of ottoman & Germany and moral
& material support to Somali Nationalism movement Sayy d, Mohammed Abdullah Hassan
 What Were Chief Events in Tafari's Rise to Power?
• Gifted personality • 1918 removed 12 Men of council of Minis
except Warm public demonstration
• His personal character
• of Mahal Safari against mal- administrative
• Natural gifted of patience
practice or corruption
• Introvert in his motive & plan
• Capture of Lij Iyasu 1921
• Determination & cunning
• 1923 members of League of nation 1924
• Rich political experience
• Made grand Tour in Europe
- Tafari measures:
- The natural death of Fit H/Georgis 1926 include Abune Mathews

- 1927 unconditional surrender of Dejazmach Balcha Safo of Sidamo (Ras Desta Damitew)

- 1928 Dej. Abba Wiqaw revolt (camped at Mausoleum of Menelik) sentenced life imprisonment

- 1928 Teferi crown Negus Mahal Safaris pressed Zawditu king of Ethiopia “heir of throne

- The last challenge Teferi’s triumph to power

- The Governor of Begemdir, ex- husband of Zawditu Gugsa Welle, Taytu’s nephew

• w. the reason behind marriage divorce in 1917 was secrete motive of Teferi & Showan nobility at
large during her coronation and made him governor of

• Begemdir in 1918.Teferi looking for favorable condition to eliminate Gugsa once and for all.

• 1929 Rebellion Raya & Azezo in South Tigre & N. Wollo owing to have measure of local
autonomy

• On 31 March 1930 Battle of Anchim (Lasta- Begemdir) the Imperial Army led by Ras Mulugeta
Yigez (New Minister of War) Zawditu died today later

• 02 Nov. 1930 with impressive coronation ceremony became emperor

• The Emergence of the Absolutist Sate 19 30-35

• Reveals autocratic power

• Reveals rule of man at the expense of rule of law

• People are no more citizen but subject

• The major steps that Haile silasse to enable to gain absolute power.

•  Issuing the first written constitution in 1931 Bringing political modernity

• Solved the traditional problem of succession

• Building national integrity

• Providing “fair justice” for the Ethiopian people

• Real content of the constitution reveals

• Building the absolute power of the emperor

• Guaranteeing his descendant the right to success

• To impress European by showing modern Political Transformation contain Nominal parliamentary system

•
• The constitution confirmed the emperor’s divine right to rule, issue laws Establish bicameral
parliament
• A= Senate (upper chamber of nobles) – Emperor
• B= Chamber of Deputy (local feudal lords) local noble
• To appoint & dismiss Members of the parliament, Civic & military official
• To declare & end wars
• To grant land & honors
• the value of the 1931 constitution
• - Establishment of parliament system
• - The introduction civil rights
• - Introduction of civilian bureaucracy
• - Established the three ideally government organs
•  Completed the process of building centralized administration
• Regional administration fallen under royal appointees Wollo- Asfaw wosen (eldest son) Begemdir- Ras
Kassa Gojam & Jimma (central gover nment control)
• - Except Tiger (2 grand sons of Yohannis IV)
• - Ras Seyoum Mengesha
• - Ras Gugsa Araya
•  Established Fiscal centralization
• - Removed traditional custom posts-kellas
• - Controlled customs on external trade
•  Series attention to the modernization of the army In fact began- 1920 sent abroad, Belgian officers
1930 trained into 3 Battalions
• Opening of Holeta Military ac. 1934 (Sweden teach) 3 years course
 Italian Occupation (1936-1941)

• Tripartite Treaty (1906) signed by the three European colonial neighbors of Et hiopia
intended to partition the region in accordance with their sphere of influ ence. But Menelik
took measures against the objective of Britain, France and I taly that filled water on their
colonial ambition. The Plans of Fascist I taly
• - The rise Fascist party to power 1922 developed c olonial ambition of Italy setting as:
• Erase shameful scare of Adowa
• Ambition of Mussolini prestige in military success
• Divert people’s attention from economic difficulties at home of pre-Italian invasion
• Coverage- Didn’t opposed Ethiopia appealed of the league of Nation in 1923 b ut Britain.
As Pretext- Made warm welcome 1924 of Ras Teferi tour to Europe .Signed peace &
friendship treaty in 1928
• Italy continued its Preparation un der cover. The preparation consisted of 2 activities
• 1. Subversive measures carried by Italian governor of Eretria (Corrado Zoli)
• - Bribe & agitated the chiefs of Tigre, Wollo, Begemdir and Gojam
• 2. Military preparation
• Placed armies & war supplies in Eritrea and Somali
• Hoare- Laval agreement which allowed taking Ethiopia and in order to encouraged not to
ally with German
•  Eve of the Invasion
• Wal- Wal incident 5 Dec. 1934
• Clash b/n Italian troops (accompanied Anglo - Ethio Boundary commission)
• Ethiopia right the invasion ill prepared…Felt over confident owing to Adowa
• Incomparable to that of Italy in terms Weapons Communication,
• Training of troops and Logistics
• Fronts of the War ( 1935 -36) • The Ethiopian reaction

• Northern front under the command Emilio de • 1. The northern front - under Ras Kassa Hailu-
Bono Replaced by Pietro Badoglio. Began on 3 consisted three sub-front
Oct, 1935 in the North
• 1.1Shire front (left)- Ras Imiru(governor of Gojjam)
• Southern front under Rodolf Grazziani
• 1.2Temben front (center)- Ras Seyoum and Ras
• The Ethiopian army ordered to pull back rather to Kassa governor of Tigray and Salale respectively
check the advancing Italian owing to two reasons
• 1.3 Amba Aradom (left) –Ras Mulugeta(Minister
• Exhibition of league of nation of War)

• Strategic elongate • 2. Southern front -consisted two

• 2.1 South- under Ras Desta- Damitew

• 2.2South east- und Dejazmach Nesibu Zeamanuel

 Course of War
• In the North front

• Adigrat, Adowa & Meqele fallen

• Ethiopian first offense at Meqele encircle (first The second Battle of Temben late Feb 1936
military engagement) known as battle of Tem ben 20- 24
• Under Ras Kassa & Seyoum resulted 8,000 Ethiopia
Jan. 1936
killed
• Ras Kassa & Seyoum Mengesha defeated
• Italian killed wounded, 34- Officers, 350- Soldiers, 188-
• 8,000 Ethiopia died and wounded Askaris

• 60 officers, 605 low ranked soldiers417 Eritrea Askaris • Shire front under Ras Immiru Scored little victory
were killed & wounded
• Left the front on 2, April 1936 due to poor fighting morals
• Italian used Yipright or killer gas under Badoglio. of Gojjam and Semen Nobles ,and organized retreat
towards lake Ashenge 10,000 men
• Battle of Amba Aradom Aerial attack Feb. 10- 15, 1936
• Last and Decisive battle of Machew 31 March led by the
• Evacuated Ethiopian from mountain hill 6000 killed
emperor Ras Imru’s army, didn’t join
including Ras Mulugeta Killed - 36 white officers, 621
white soldiers, 145 Askaris • Fresh force in the Ethiopian army Imperial body guard
6000 men, Fought March 31- Arp. 1, 1936, Resulted
defeat after 13 continuous hours. In April 1936 the Italian
entered Dessie without any problem.
 The Southern Front
• 1st Qorahe Attack ( Ogden)
Ethiopian under Dejazmach Afeworq
• - Initial successive defense but not last long
• - Fascist entered into Harar
• - Significant challenge the fascist met from Dejazmach Mekonnen
Endalkachew
• 2nd Battle of Genale Doraya Janu 26 , 19 36
• - Campaign Dolo Odo (Ras Desta)
• - March 2, 1936 Negelle Borana capture Ras Desta retreated and executed
at Gogeti around Butajira
 Why did Ethiopian lose the war in both sides?
• 1. Superiority of the fascist army in both numerically and technically.
• 2. Shortage of logistic such as cartridges
• - 8 transport air plane (Ethiopian)
• - 400 air planes most Bomber (Italy)
• - Keep for even month fighting
• - Had no doctor and medical supplies
• - Had no radio communication
• 3. Dissatisfaction with in the Ethiopian army
• - Hailesilasse Gugsa- (Gov- Tigre)
• - Ras Mulugeta (un happy an old man, war minister)
• 4. Old commander with little knowledge of modern warfare, and Had no war experience after
Adowa .Stayed in comfort & peace without hardship for 40 year since 1896
 Colonial Administration

• Ethiopia became part of Italian east Africa empire • - Achievements of Italian beside their colonial
occupation in Ethiopia, and still some evidence
• The empire divided into six regions with
depicted the legacies, for instance
respected capital
• Introduced new life style
• Addis Ababa deserved the capital of the empire
• Opened enterprises and business
• Empire held by Mussolini’s viceroy lived in Genet-
Leul-palace what is the current AAU • Road & housing construction

• Some of viceroy of Italian East African empire were • Light scale manufactories included Cotton and
cement faction in Dire Dawa, edible oil and flour
• Marshal Emilio Badoglio
mills
• Marshal Rodolfo Grazziani
• Introduced services such as Electric light, Pure
• Amador Umberto Duck of Aosta was more liberal water and Commercial center in Merkato
among all the viceroy
 Patriotic Resistance

Started as soon as the defeat Machew, and had two summer 1936.operated in to four direction
phase and stages. the first phase led by noble,
• 1. Abera and Asfaw- North Direction
military officer ,Lutenat conelel. Blay Haileab, Kifle
Nesi bu Ketema Besha and educated • 2. Balcha Safo- South direction

• Organized Black lion to liberate Ethiopia Ras • 3. Ras Abebe- North west Direct
Immiru took the leadership of the organization, • 4. Dejazmach Fiqre- Mariam- East
and directed the operation in the Gibe river basin. direction
Ras Desta led the patriotic resistance after he
retreated in to the Gurage region arround • Combined with Abune Petros anti- fascist speech,
Butajjira until his defeat at Gogeti the plan didn’t achieve success due to poorly
planned, Lacked coordination and effective
• To sons of Ras Kassa, Abera and Asfa- wosen timing

• As the result, the two Brothers fled to Selale later

killed due to the fake and conspiracy Ras Hailu
made in favor of the colonialists. Abune Petros
executed and Balch was killed at fighting
• - Planned abortive attack on Addis Ababa in the
 The Second Phase and Stage

• February 19, 1937 abortive attempt to kill local notable persons

Marshal Grazziani, the viceroy by A braham
• Problem s of patriotic resistance
Debouch and Moges Asgidom, which resulted
wholesale massacre for th ree days 30, 000,and • Lack of sufficient supplies and logistic
499 monks/ Debre Libanos. • Competition and rivalry among the leader
• Country- wide anti- fascist resistance • Defections to the fascist
characteristics /forms/ second phase
• Famous resistance leaders are
• Carried out on guerilla warfare (especially strong
in Showa, Gojam and Begemdir) The Patriots • Abebe Argay, Bekele Woya, Geresu Duki, Belay
employed various tactics Zeleke, H/Mariam Mamo, Amoraw Wubeneh,
Takele W/Hawariat
• Ambush of enemy convoys
• The two exceptional were Zerai Deres & Abdissa
• Cutting communication line Aga in Italy
• Times striking(conditions favorable) Led by
 The War of Liberation and Ethiopian Independence

• Factors that speed Ethiopian independence • British campaign against fascists of Ethiopia and
Eritrea operation direct a command from Sudan
• Italy’s entry into WWII on the side of Germany on
and Kenya
10 June, 1940
• 1.General Platt- Led the operation from Sudan
• Produced threat on Britain East Africa colonies
towards the liberation of Eritrea Strong challenge
• Italy’s 200,000 troops in East Africa strong hold of Keren (captured 53 day war)
• Britain decided to fight in North and East Africa • 2. Colonel Dan Sanford
on land
• 3. Major order Charles Wingate to liberate
• Britain began to supply military assistance to the Ethiopia with Gideon force, the Ethiopian army
Ethiopian patriots Sudan became base of military trained in Sudan, Soba
support
• 4. General Cunningham- from Kenya directed to
• H/Sillassie arrived Sudan and opened military liberate Italy Somali land and Harar. This force is
school at Soba responsible the first drove the Fascist out of Al
Ababa on 6 April 1941 .On 5 may 1941 the
Emperor re- entered Addis Ababa
 ETHIOPIA FROM 1941-1991

• 1. Consolidation of Autocracy (1940-1960)

• 2. foreign relation first with British (1940-1940) then USA (1950-1974)
• 3. Coup d'état of dec 1960 Gen Mengistu Neway & Garmame Neway
• 4. Peasant revolts Wayane 1943 under Blata Hailemariam Reda Bale in
(1963-68) under General Waqo Gutu and Gojjam in 1968.
• 5. Ethiopian Student Movements (1960-1974) Land to Tiller
• 6. Sept 12 Deposed Emperor and Derg (Aman Andom--Tafari Banti----
Mengistu’s regime)
THANK YOU