UNIT THREE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN

ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF
THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
3.1. Emergence of States
State refers to an autonomous political unit having
population, defined territory, sovereignty and government
with the power to decree and enforce laws.
• State was the outcome of regular cultural process.

In this regard, it should be emphasized that, states arose

independently in different places and at different times.
 .

• Therefore, states were formed mainly through the

expansion of agriculture that gave rise to the
class differentiation.
• The important factors for the emergence of states
were the beginning of sedentary agriculture,
trade and religion.
• Religious shaped the socio-cultural setup of the
states in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn
 .

• Furthermore, the growth of trade facilitated the

development of states.

• The results of the period were socio-cultural achievements

such as architecture, writing, calendar, numerals etc.

•Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa, where

early state formation took place.

•From beginnings, such states gradually developed into

powerful kingdoms and even empires.

 3.2. Ancient States

A.Punt
•Punt was the earliest state in Ethiopia and the Horn.

•The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian

hieroglyphic writing.
•The sources regarding on Egypt, Iron, bronze, asses,

foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and medicinal plants

were also exported from Punt to Egypt.

 .

• In return, axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles,

clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other
trinkets were imported from Egypt to Punt.
• Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact
location of Punt.
• The varieties of incense and mentioned in the writings have
suggested northern or northeastern Somalia to some scholars
while others are inclined more towards Northern Ethiopia
because of the reference to gold, ebony and monkeys.
 .

B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern

Ethiopia and Eritrea

• The state known as Da’amat had a center a little to the

south of Aksum.

• Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated to the

fifth century BC.

• Da’amat used politico-religious title known as Mukarib.

• Because, there were similar practices in South Arabia at

the time.
 .

• There were a number of cultural centers in northern

Ethiopia.

• Yeha: is located to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest

of these centers.

• Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry

as well as still standing temple and inscriptions indicate Yeha’s
glory.

• Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum, where

stone tablets that are inscribed in rectangular temple
surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings. and etc.
 .

C. The Aksumite State

 The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed
around 200-100 B.C. Initially, its power was
limited to a relatively small area comprising the
town of Aksum and its environs.
 Later, it expanded to include large territories in all
directions.
 .

Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea

coast in the East to the Western edge of Ethiopian
plateau overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the west
and from the northern most corner of Eritrea and
possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa.
 According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis
on the western coast of the Red Sea was the major
port of Aksum.
 Cont …

 The major items of export of the Aksumite state

consisted mainly of the natural products such as ivory,

spices, gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides,
tortoise shells and some curiosity animals like apes.
 In turn, a number of manufactured products like

garments and textiles were imported from Egypt,

India, Roman Empire, and Persia.
 Zoscales (c. 76-89), the king of Aksum, used to

communicate in Greek language.

 .

 Aksum also had relations with Sri Lanka and Asia

Minor.
 Cosmas Indicopleustes’ published book known as
the Christian Topography, describes commercial
activities of the Red Sea areas.
 It also mentions the internal long distance trade
between Aksum and a distant region called Sasu,
most probably in Beni Shangul and the adjoining
lands beyond the Blue Nile.
 .

 Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the

outside world notably with the South Arabian

region, leading to exchange of ideas, material and

spiritual culture.
 From the third to seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like

Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted

and issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze

for both overseas and local transactions.

 .

 Kaleb (r. 500-535) expanded overseas territories of

Aksum and Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra

Masqal (535-548) who built church at Zur Amba in

Gayint.
 It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed

Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical songs and

hymns.
 The Aksumite state had begun to decline since the late 7 th

C. because of internal and external challenges.

 .

Internal challenges:
 Environmental degradation and decline in
agricultural productivity

 Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local

rebellions.

 The recurring rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw

and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally
sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state.
 .

External challenges:
 The destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs

around 702

 The whole network of Aksumite international trade

came under the control of the rising and expanding

Arab Muslims, Aksumite state was isolated from

its old commercial and diplomatic partners.

 D. Zagwe Dynasty
•After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted
southwards to the territory of the Agaw.
•After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, they
successfully took over the state administration.
•Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot
married Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite
king Dil Na'od.
•Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took control of
power.
 Cont …
•The Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from C. 1150 to
1270.

•The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within

Wag and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).

•The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from most of

the highland provinces of the ancient Aksumite kingdom in the
north down to northern Shewa in the south; the Lake Tana
region and the northern part of what is today Gojjam in the
west.
 Cont …
•The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite
traditions almost intact.

•Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact

with eastern Mediterranean region.

•The most important export items included slaves,

ivory and rare spices while cotton, linen, silver
and copper vessels, various types of drags and
newly minted coins were imported.
 .

•Furthermore, the Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's

paintings and the translation of some of religious works from Arabic
into Ge'ez.

•That said, Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of cave,
semi-hewn and monolithic churches:

1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave,
eg. Bete-Mesqel.

2. Semi-hewn: with detailed interior decoration and partial decoration

outside. eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota,
Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’elRufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
 .

• Monolithic: with detailed decoration inside including

roof and outside. eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete
Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.

• Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete

Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is
said to be the most finely built in the shape of the cross.
• The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to internal
problems of royal succession and oppositions from
groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of
 .

• “Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state

until its power was “usurped” by the Zagwes.
• Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed
decent from the last Aksumite king Dilna’od.
• The last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek was killed in
Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state power
contending the “restoration” of “Solomonic”
Dynasty.
 Muslim Sultanates
•After the spread of Islam since the beginning of the
eighth century, Muslim communities and states had
been established at many locations especially along the
main trade routes from Zeila and its many branches
penetrating the interior.
These states include:
A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed
decent from Meca, set up Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A.
D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa.
 .

B. Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a

in the eleventh century.

C. Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper waters of

Awash and WabiShebelle extending to Charchar in Northeast

and Gindhir in Southeast. It was much smaller than Ifat.

D. Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau,

separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes. Bali was

one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.

 .

• E. Ifat: was a state located in the adjacent to Shewan

Sultanate. Its territory ran from northeast-
southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash.
• It was established by Umar Walasma, who came from
Arabia between 1271 and 1285. He intervened
between quarrelsome Makzumite princes, weakened
and annexed the sultanate of Shewa.
 .

F. Others: Mutually independent states like:

 Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro),

 Dera (between Dawaro and Bali),

 Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali

in Arsi) were established and flourished.
 3.3. External Contacts
•Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at
least 3,000 B. C.

•These relations may be the region’s earliest contacts.

•It had very close relations with all commercially active

South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before
1,000 B.C.

•The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a

new pattern of relation between the region and Egypt.
 .

•The introduction of Christianity, Aksum had

established close relationship with the East Roman
or Byzantine Empire with common commercial
interest in the Red Sea area.

•In addition, the rapid expansion of the Muslim

Arabs through the Near and Middle East, North
Africa and the Nile valley led to the decline of
Aksumite.
 .

•From the information, the Europeans began to

consider Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very
powerful and wealthy state existing in the Horn of
Africa.

•Consequently, they wanted to use this imaginary

strong Christian power against the Muslim powers
in the Holy land.
 3.4. Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System:

• The main stay of ancient states' economy in

highland areas was plough agriculture.

• Land has always been one of the most precious

possessions of human society throughout history.

• The society hold, share and use land constitute

what is known as the land tenure system.
 .

• The system of land holding which survived in

many parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the
communal land tenure system.
• Communal right to land is a group right. Here
group refers to the family, the clan and the other
lineage groups to individuals.
• Peasants in the north had rist rights in their
respective areas.
• Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by
members of the families and clans.
 .

• It is inherited from generation to generation in

accordance with customary law.
• The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
• Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’
produce.
• The tribute collected by bale-gults, partly allotted
for their own up keep and the rest were sent to the
imperial center.
• Gult right that became hereditary was called
Riste-Gult.
 .

B. Handicraft:
• Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since
the ancient period.
• The ancient states had allowed the emergence of
artisans in various fields with diverse forms and
applications including metal work, pottery, tannery,
carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewellery, basketry and
others.
• Metal workers produced spears’ points, swords ,
javelins, bows, arrows, traps, slings, shields, knives,
axes, sickles, hoes, ploughshares, spades, machetes,
hatchets, iron tripods, ornaments etc.
 .

C. Trade:
• Trade was another important economic activity
of ancient states that obtained considerable
income from both internal and international
trade.
• Major trade links with various directions and
with merchants coming to the area across the
international water bodies.
 3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements
A. Architecture:
 There were several steles in and around Aksum
were made and decorated.
 The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the
finest architecture of artistic achievements of the
Christian world. (the construction and decoration
of the rock hewn churches in the Zagwe period.)
 .

B. Writing System:
 Sabean inscriptions are absence of vowels as most of the
words are written in consonants. For instance, Da’amat was
described as D’mt.
C. Calendar:
 Calendars were developed and adopted among various
peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 to know and remember the times when the rains would
begin and end as well as the rise and fall of the water level,
etc.