MACHINE TOOL

&
DIGITAL MANUFACTURING
(MTDM)
 Text Books

Year/
Sl. No. Author Publisher
Title Edition/volume

Workshop Chapman W. Viva books (P)

6.1 1988
Technology A. J Ltd

Production Tata McGraw-

6.2 HMT 2001
Technology Hill

Zude Zhou,
Fundamentals of
Shane
Digital Springer-Verlag
6.3 (Shengquan) 2012
Manufacturing London Limited
Xie and Dejun
Science
Chen,
 Reference Books
Sl. Year/
Author Publisher
No. Title Edition/volume

Machine Tool MIR

7.1 Acharkan. N 2000
Design Publication,

MIR
7.2 Machine Tools, Chernov 1984
Publication

Manufacturing Ghosh A. And Malic East West

7.3 2010
Science A. K Press
Elements of
Media
7.4 workshop Hajra Choudary, 2010
Publishers,
technology
Printice
Materials and Poul De Garmo,
Hall of
7.5 Processes in J.T.Black, 1997
India Pvt.
Manufacturing R.A.Kosher
Ltd.
China, United States, Japan, Germany,
South Korea, and India. Collectively,
these countries account for 60 percent
of world’s manufacturing GDP
Global production of machine Tools during 2015 was 80.1 Bn USD. India
occupies 13th position in global machine tool production.

India share in global production is about 0.7 percent

structure and size of the machine tool industry
In 2017, global real machine tool consumption was $82.9 billion, which was
an increase of 4.5 percent. This was the most significant increase in global
machine tool consumption since 2011.
Overview of Indian Machine Tool Industry Metal Cutting & Metal
Forming
Module 1

Metal cutting
Manufacturing processes can be broadly classified in four major groups as
follows:
1. Shaping or forming Manufacturing a solid product of definite size and
shape from a given material taken in three possible states:
a. In solid state – e.g., forging rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.
b. In liquid or semi-liquid state – e.g., casting, injection moulding etc.
c. In powder form – e.g., powder metallurgical process.
2. Joining process (Welding, brazing, soldering etc).
3. Removal process (Machining, Grinding and Non-traditional machining
etc.).
4. Regenerative manufacturing (Production of solid products in layer by
layer from raw materials in different form)
A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a given part than
alternative shaping processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy, or forming

Introduction to metal cutting Machining or Metal Cutting Process of removing

unwanted material to get desired shape using sharp wedged tool. Advantages
of metal Cutting features compared to casting/forging (other shaping process):
1. Closer dimensional accuracy
2. Better Surface texture/finish
3. Economical
4. Complex shape and size
Disadvantages
5. Wasteful of material: Chips generated in machining are wasted
material
6. Time consuming or low material removal rate:
Processes parameters (Independent variables)
• Work material
• Tool material
• Tool geometry
• Cutting parameters
 Cutting velocity
 Feed
 Depth of cut
 Cutting fluid etc.
Performance parameters (Dependent variable)
1. Material removal rate
2. Surface finish
3. Tool wear rate/tool life
4. Dimensional accuracy
5. Power requirement
6. Cutting temperature etc.
Single point cutting tool
Rake angle:
The side rake angle and the back-rake angle combine to form the effective rake angle. This
is also called true rake angle. Rake angle can also have defined as the inclination tool
surface with the plane perpendicular to cutting velocity vector. It makes the cutting easier.
Nose radius
It provides strengthening of the tool nose and better surface finish. Increase of
nose radius increase the friction also which increases the cutting force. Slight
nose radius is usually provided to increase the surface finish. Too large nose
radius makes vibration/chatter.

Slight increases of nose radius

1. Improves surface finish
2. Higher tool life (Stronger edge)
3. Heavy feed rates and large depths of cut can be given
Factors of metal cutting affecting the Roughness of product
• Cutting parameters
• High cutting speed
• Low feed improves the surface finish
• Low depth of cut
• Cutting fluid
• Tool geometry
• Nose radius improves the surface finish
• rake angle – high rake angle improves the finish
• side cutting edge angle - high cutting angle decreases the finish
Types of metal cutting
Principally there are two types of metal cutting:
1. Orthogonal cutting, and
2. Oblique cutting.
Orthogonal Cutting
This orthogonal cutting is also known as Two Dimensional (2-D) Cutting.
1. The cutting edge of the tool remains at 90 0 to the cutting velocity vector or feed
movement
2. The chip flows in a direction normal to the cutting edge of the tool (chip flow
orthogonally)
3. The tool life is lower than oblique cutting (for same conditions of cutting).
4. Orthogonal cutting involves only two forces, (cutting and feed force). It is called two
dimensional cutting.
5. Tool life is less
6. Examples are facing a pipe, slot cuttings in lathe and straight broaching process etc.
Oblique Cutting
1. The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an acute angle to the direction of feed or
velocity vector
2. The direction of the chip flow is not normal to the cutting edge.
3. Here three components of forces are acting: cutting force, radial force and thrust
force. So metal cutting may be considered as three dimensional cutting.
4. The cutting edge being oblique, the shear force acts on a larger area and tool life is
increased. In actual machining, majority of the cutting operations (turning, milling,
etc.) are oblique cutting.
Cutting forces in oblique cutting

In obilque cutting resul tan t R  P2 x  P2 y  P2 z

Orthogonal cutting
Mechanism of chip formation/cutting
 During continuous machining the uncut layer of the work material just ahead of
the cutting tool is subjected to compression.
 Due to such compression, shear stress develops,
 If shear stress reaches or exceeds the shear strength of that work material in the
deformation region, yielding or slip takes place resulting shear deformation in
that region
Shear zone
During metal cutting the work material ahead of the too tip suffers plastic
deformation and also while sliding on the rake face of the tool, goes to form chip.
Two plastic deformation zones, namely the primary shear zone and the secondary
shear zone have been commonly accepted.
 Primary shear zone- where shearing of chip from parent materials takes place.
 Secondary shear zone- chip - tool interface deformation due to friction between
tool and chip
Shear plane and shear angle
As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed by shear deformation along a
plane called the shear plane, which is oriented at an angle Ф with the surface of the
work. Shear plane separates the deformed and un-deformed work material.
If all other factors remain the same, a higher shear angle results in a smaller shear
plane area. Since the shear strength is applied across this area, the shear force required
to form the chip will decrease when the shear plane area is decreased.
Chip thickness ratio

thickness of uncut
chip thickness ratio (r ) 
thickness of chip
Derive expression for velocities in metal cutting (Velocity relationship in orthogonal
cutting)
Types of chips produced during the metal cutting
There are three different types of chips
1. Continuous chips,
2. Discontinuous chips
3. Continuous chips with built up edge
Types of chip formation depends on work material, tool materials, tool geometry
and cutting condition (velocity, feed rate, depth, cutting fluid etc.).
Continuous chip: when machining ductile materials at high speeds with low feeds and
positive rake angle long continuous chips are formed. Example mild steel
Favorable factors for continuous chip formation
• work material – ductile
• Cutting velocity – high
• Feed – low
• Rake angle – positive and large
• Cutting fluid – both cooling and lubricating
Discontinuous chips:
Discontinuous chip: when machining relatively brittle materials at low cutting speeds,
the chips often form into separated segments. Discontinuous chip formation may cause
vibration, surface roughness and reduced tool life. Machining brittle material with
medium or large feed and negative rake angles favours discontinuous chips
 work material- brittle
 feed – large
 tool rake – negative
 cutting fluid – absent or inadequate
Continuous chips with BUE:
 Built Up Edge (BUE) is the accumulation of work piece material onto the rake face of
the tool. This material welds under pressure, and is separate from the chip.

Factors favourable to form BUE

1. work material – ductile
2. cutting velocity – medium
3. feed – medium or large
Cutting fluid – inadequate or absent
Chip breakers:
Continuous machining of ductile metals produces continuous chips, which leads
to their handling and disposal problems.The function of chip breakers is to reduce
the radius of curvature of chips and thus break it.
1. becomes dangerous to the operator and the other people working in the
vicinity
2. may cause damage to work piece surface and machine tool
3. creates difficulties in easy collection and disposal of chips
Forced chip breaker
1. In-built type
2. Clamped or attachment type
Forces acting in orthogonal cutting
The forces acting during a metal cutting process are the following
1. Fs =shear force acting along the shear plane
2. Fn= force acting normal to shear plane
3. F= Frictional force acting against the chip flow acting along the tool
4. N= force normal to tool face (friction force)
Merchant Theory
Merchant’s hypothesis is that the shear plane is located to minimize the cutting force,
or where the shear stress is maximum. Of all the possible angles at which shear
deformation could occur, the work material will select a shear plane angle which
minimizes energy. Merchant’s derived an equation between shear angle, rake angle,
and friction angle from the merchant circle diagram.
Assumption in merchant analysis
 Thin shear zone
 Shearing in a plane
 Continuous chip is formed
 Orthogonal cutting (edge perpendicular to cutting velocity)
 Perfectly sharp cutting edge
 Work done during metal cutting
We are giving cutting force and feed force
Power supplied = cutting force * cutting velocity + feed force
(thrust force) * feed velocity
P  Fc * V  Ft * Feed velocity
p  Fc * V

(feed velocity is so small so and its power neglected compared with cutting power)
Cutting force constitutes about 70~80 % of the total force.
Power required = power required for shearing + power required for the chip flow
along the tool face (friction power)
P  Ps  Pf
Ps  Fs * V s
Pf  F * Vc
P  Fc * V  Ft * Feed velocity Vc  velocity of chip flow
p  Fc * V Fs  shear force
F  frictional force
Vs  velocity of shear
Specific Cutting Energy
The energy consumed in removing a unit volume of material is called the specific
cutting energy, and it is also called unit power.

energy consumed
specific energy 
volume of material removed
volume of material  length * width * thickness of chip  l * w * t
Friction in metal cutting
In metal cutting, it has been observed that co-efficient of friction has properties that
are quite different from the properties of ordinary sliding friction obeying laws of
friction.
In metal cutting due to very high normal stress, the real area is almost equal to
apparent area where a law of friction is not valid. It has been observed that these
classical laws of friction cannot be applied to metal cutting process. In metal cutting,
high values of coefficient of friction and change of this co-efficient with respect of
cutting parameters is noticed.
From merchant analysis of orthogonal cutting, we have

It shows that co-efficient of friction is not constant, it varies with tool angle and
cutting forces. It has been observed that co-efficient of friction increases with the
increase in rake angle.
 Cutting tool

With the progress of the industrial world it has been needed to continuously develop and
improve the cutting tool materials and geometry;
 To meet the growing demands for high productivity, quality and economy of machining
 To enable effective and efficient machining of the exotic materials that are coming up
 For precision and ultra-precision machining
 For micro and even nano machining demanded by the day and future.
Properties of Cutting Tool Materials
The cutting tool material should possess the following properties
1. Hot hardness
It is the ability of the tool material to retain its hardness and cutting edge at
elevated temperatures.
2. Wear Resistance
Ability of the tool material to resist wear when operating at high speeds can be
increased by adding carbon and alloying elements.
3. Toughness
Ability to resist shock and vibrations without failure is important for interrupted
cuts.
4. High thermal conductivity and specific heat
To conduct the heat generated at the cutting edge.
5. Coefficient of friction
The coefficient of friction between the chip and the tool should be as low as
possible
6. Favorable cost, easy to fabricate and easy to grind and sharpen.
7. It should have low or zero chemical affinity for the work material.
Classification of
Tool Materials
1. High Carbon
Steel
2. High Speed
Steel
3. Carbide tools
4. Ceramics
5. Cermet
6. Sialon
7. CBN
8. Diamond
Heat generation in metal cutting
Almost all (90%-100%) of the mechanical energy consumed in a machining
operation finally convert into the thermal energy that in turn raises the temperature in
the cutting zone. Heat has critical influences on machining
Effects of heat generation in machining
1. Affects tool life and wear rate
2. It affects strength and hardness of tool
3. Surface roughness (oxidation of machined surface and
deformation)
4. Deformation of work and machine
5. Lower dimensional accuracy
6. Forms build up edge
Tool failure or tool life
Cutting tools generally fail by:
1. Gradual wear of the cutting tool at its flanks and rake surface.
2. Mechanical breakage and chipping due to excessive forces and shocks.
3. Plastic deformation of cutting edge due to intensive stresses and temperature.

It is considered that the tool has failed or about to fail by one or more of the
following conditions:
1. Excessive increase in cutting forces or vibration
2. Excessive vibration and or abnormal sound (chatter)
3. Dimensional deviation beyond tolerance
4. Rapid worsening of surface finish
Tool wears mechanism / mode of wear
For controlling tool wear one must understand the various mechanisms of
wear that the cutting tool undergoes under different conditions.
The common mechanisms of cutting tool wear are:
1) Mechanical wear
a. abrasion,
b. adhesion,
c. chipping
d. fatigue
2) Thermo-chemical wear
a. diffusion wear
3) Chemical wear
a. corrosion
b. oxidation
Gradual or progressive tool wear / (types of wear)
a) Flank wear
b) Crater wear
c) Nose wear
d) Plastic deformation of tools
Stages of tool wear

 Region AB- rapid wear

rate due the initial
broken down of
cutting edge
 Region BC- uniform
wear rate
 Region CD- increasing
rate
Tool Life Equation (Taylor’s Equation based on Flank Wear)
Effect of tool life on rake, clearance angle, cutting time and
temperature
Machineability
It can be defined as the ease with which a material can be machined by a given tool
under a given set of conditions. Suppose it is states as material A is more machinable
than material B, then it means that:
Economics of Metal Cutting
The primary aim is to produce satisfactory parts at the lowest possible cost and highest
possible production rate. As the cutting speed increases the MRR is high giving low cutting
cost, but the tool life will be shorter and consequently high cutting cost per piece. At some
intermediate cutting speed, the tool cost will be minimum. The tool life corresponding to
this speed is economical tool life.
The total cost per piece is based on:
 Non-productive cost
 Cutting or machining cost
 tool changing cost
Cutting Fluid
During a metal cutting operation heat is generated due to plastic
deformation of the metal and friction of the tool-work interface.
Cutting fluid is used to carry away the heat produced during the
machining and reduce the friction between the chip and the tool.
Cutting fluids in the form of a liquid are applied to the chip
formation zone to improve the cutting conditions.
Functions of the Cutting Fluid
1. To cool the tool and work during machining (dissipate heat)
2. To lubricate (to reduce friction)
a. It reduces the power consumption
b. It prevents the formation of BUE
c. Increases tool life
d. Reduces heat generated at the tool chip interface
3. To protect the finished surface from corrosion.
4. To cause the chips break into small pieces.
5. Chips are disposed off easily
6. To improve surface finish
Properties of Cutting Fluid
1. Good lubricating properties to reduce frictional and the power
consumption.
2. High heat absorbing capacity (high specific heat)
3. It should high heat conductivity.
4. High flash point.
5. Should be non-corrosive to work and tool.
6. It should have low viscosity to permit free flow of liquid.
7. Should not lose its properties when exposed to heat.
8. It should not react with the work piece
Should be economical in use.
Types of cutting fluids
a) Water based cutting fluid
b) Straight cutting oils
c) Synthetic cutting fluid (from chemicals)
 Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to form a chip
 As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

Figure 21.2 (a) A cross‑sectional view of the machining process, (b)

tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
 Shear Strain in Chip Formation

Figure 21.7 Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted
as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of the
plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used to
derive strain equation.
 Discontinuous Chip
 Brittle work
materials
 Low cutting speeds
 Large feed and
depth of cut
 High tool‑chip
friction

Figure 21.9 Four types of chip

formation in metal cutting: (a)
discontinuous
 Continuous Chip

 Ductile work
materials
 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and
depths
 Sharp cutting edge
 Low tool‑chip
friction

Figure 21.9 (b) continuous

 Continuous with BUE
 Ductile materials
 Low‑to‑medium
cutting speeds
 Tool-chip friction
causes portions of chip
to adhere to rake face
 BUE forms, then
breaks off, cyclically
Figure 21.9 (c) continuous
with built‑up edge
 Serrated Chip
 Semicontinuous -
saw-tooth
appearance
 Cyclical chip forms
with alternating high
shear strain then low
shear strain
 Associated with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high Figure 21.9 (d) serrated.
cutting speeds
 Forces Acting on Chip
 Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
 Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Figure 21.10 Forces in

metal cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip in
orthogonal cutting
 Resultant Forces
 Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
 Vector addition of F and F = resultant R'
s n
 Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
› R' must be equal in magnitude to R
› R’ must be opposite in direction to R
› R’ must be collinear with R
Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F

N

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:

  tan 
 Cutting Force and Thrust Force
 F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
 Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
› Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Figure 21.10 Forces

in metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured
 Cutting Forces
(2D Orthogonal Cutting)
Chip Tool
Generally we know:
Tool geometry & type
R Workpiece material
f F
Fs and we wish to know:
Fn R
N F = Cutting Force
F c = Thrust Force
R F t = Friction Force
Fc N = Normal Force
Workpiece Ft R F s = Shear Force
Fn = Force Normal

Dynamometer to Shear

Free Body Diagram

Force Circle Diagram
(Merchants Circle)
a
Fs Tool

Fc f

b-a

F F
t n
a

f R

b-a
b
F
a
N
 Results from
Force Circle Diagram
(Merchant's Circle)
Friction Force F = Fcsin + Ftcos
Normal Force N = Fccos - Ftsin
 = F/N and  = tan typically 0.5 - 2.0)
Shear Force Fs = Fccos - Ftsin
Forc e Normal to She ar pl ane F n = F csi n + F tc os
 Forces in Metal Cutting
 Equations can be derived to relate the forces that
cannot be measured to the forces that can be
measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
 Based on these calculated force, shear stress and
coefficient of friction can be determined
The Merchant Equation
 Of all the possible angles at which shear
deformation can occur, the work material
will select a shear plane angle  that
minimizes energy, given by
  45  
2 2

 Derived by Eugene Merchant

 Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity
extends to 3-D machining
What the Merchant Equation Tells
Us
 
  45  
2 2

 To increase shear plane angle

› Increase the rake angle
› Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of
friction)
Force relationships Merchant circle
edge angle shear angle
 
Ski
Snow
p
Fs

Fc
Forces
Fn Fc = centrifugal
F
(cutting)
 R -- Ft Ft = thrust
Fs = shear
Fn = normal to
N shear plane
 F = friction on ski
N = normal to ski

-
 Powe
r
Power (or energy consumed per unit time) is the product of
force and velocity. Power at the cutting spindle:
Cutting Power Pc = FcV
Power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone and on the rake
face:
Power for Shearing Ps = FsV s
Friction Power Pf = FVc

Actual Motor Power requirements will depend on machine

efficiency E (%):

Pc
Motor Power Required = x 100
E
Material Removal Rate (MRR)
Volume Removed
Material Removal Rate (MRR) =
Time
Volume Removed = Lwto

Time to move a distance L = L/V

Lwto
Therefore, MRR = = Vwto
L/V

MRR = Cutting velocity x width of cut x depth of cut

 Specific Cutting Energy
(or Unit Power)
Energy required to remove a unit volume of material (often quoted as
a function of workpiece material, tool and process:

Energy Energy per unit time

Ut = =
Volume Removed Volume Removed per unit time

Cutting Power (Pc) FcV Fc

Ut = = =
Material Removal Rate (MRR) Vwto wto

FsV s
Specific Energy for shearing Us =
Vwto
FV c Fr
Specific Energy for friction U f = =
Vwto wto
 Specific Cutting Energy
Decomposition
1. Shear Energy/unit volume (Us)
(required for deformation in shear zone)

2. Friction Energy/unit volume (Uf)

(expended as chip slides along rake face)

3. Chip curl energy/unit volume (Uc)

(expended in curling the chip)

4. Kinetic Energy/unit volume (Um)

(required to accelerate chip)

U t = U s + U f +U c +U m
Cutting tool geometry
 Tool Geometry
 The most important geometry’s to consider on a
cutting tool are
› Back Rake Angles
› End Relief Angles
› Side Relief Angles
 Rake Angles
 Larger positive rake
angles
› Reduce compression
and less chance of a
discontinuous chip
› Reduce forces
› Reduce friction
› Result = A thinner, less
deformed, and cooler
chip.
 Rake Angles
 Problems….as we increase the angle:
› Reduce strength of tool
› Reduce the capacity of the tool to conduct heat away
from the cutting edge.
› To increase the strength of the tool and allow it to
conduct heat better, in some tools, zero to negative
rake angles are used.
 Negative Rake Tools
 Typical tool materials which utilize negative rakes
are:
 Carbide
 Diamonds
 Ceramics
 These materials tend to be much more brittle than
HSS but they hold superior hardness at high
temperatures. The negative rake angles transfer the
cutting forces to the tool which help to provide added
support to the cutting edge.
 Summary Positive vs. Negative
Rake Angles
 Positive rake angles
› Reduced cutting forces
› Smaller deflection of work, tool holder, and machine
› Considered by some to be the most efficient way to
cut metal
› Creates large shear angle, reduced friction and heat
› Allows chip to move freely up the chip-tool zone
› Generally used for continuous cuts on ductile
materials which are not to hard or brittle
Tool Wear
Characteristics of a Good Cutting
Fluid
1. Good cooling
capacity 6. Rust resistance
2. Good lubricating 7. Nontoxic
qualities
8. Transparent
3. Resistance to
rancidity 9. Nonflammable
4. Relatively low
viscosity
5. Stability (long life)

98
Types of Cutting Fluids
 Most commonly used cutting fluids
› Either aqueous based solutions or cutting oils
 Fall into three categories
› Cutting oils
› Emulsifiable oils
› Chemical (synthetic) cutting fluids

99
Cutting Oils

 Two classifications
› Active
› Inactive
 Terms relate to oil's chemical activity or ability
to react with metal surface
› Elevated temperatures
› Improve cutting action
› Protect surface

100
 Emulsifiable (Water Soluble) Oils
 Mineral oils containing soaplike material that
makes them soluble in water and causes them
to adhere to workpiece
 Emulsifiers break oil into minute particles and
keep them separated in water
› Supplied in concentrated form (1-5 /100 water)
 Good cooling and lubricating qualities
 Used at high cutting speeds, low cutting
pressures

101
 Cutting fluid reduces friction and
produces a shorter shear plane.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display. 102
 Built-up Edge

Built-up edge keeps

breaking off and
re-forming

Result is poor
surface finish,
excessive flank
wear, and cratering
of tool face

103
Cutting Fluid's Effect on Cutting
Tool Action
1. Lowers heat created by plastic deformation
of metal
2. Friction at chip-tool interface decreased
3. Less power is required for machining
because of reduced friction
4. Prevents built-up edge from forming
5. Surface finish of work greatly improved

104
 Characteristics of cutting
tool
 Hardness (Elevated temperatures)
 Toughness (Impact forces on tool in interrupted
operations)
 Wear resistance (tool life to be considered)
 Chemical stability or inertness (to avoid adverse
reactions)
 Cutting tool materials
 Carbon & medium alloy steels
 High speed steels
 Cast-cobalt alloys
 Carbides
 Coated tools
 Alumina-based ceramics
 Cubic boron nitride
 Silicon-nitride-base ceramics
 Diamond
 Whisker-reinforced materials
 Carbon and Medium alloy
steels
 Oldest of tool materials
 Used for drills taps,broaches,reamers
 Inexpensive ,easily shaped,sharpened
 No sufficient hardness and wear resistance
 Limited to low cutting speed operation
 High speed steels

 Hardened to various depths

 Good wear resistance
 Relatively
 Suitable for high positive rake angle tools
 Cast-Cobalt alloys
 Commonly known as stellite tools
 Composition ranges – 38% - 53 % cobalt
30%- 33% chromium
10%-20%tungsten
 Good wear resistance ( higher hardness)
 Less tough than high-speed steels and sensitive to impact forces
 Less suitable than high-speed steels for interrupted cutting
operations
 Continuous roughing cuts – relatively high g=feeds & speeds
 Finishing cuts are at lower feed and depth of cut
 Tungsten Carbide

 Composite material consisting of tungsten-carbide particles

bonded together

 Alternate name is cemented carbides

 Manufactured with powder metallurgy techniques

 Particles 1-5 Mum in size are pressed & sintered to desired shape

 Amount of cobalt present affects properties of carbide tools

 As cobalt content increases – strength hardness & wear

resistance increases
 Titanium carbide

 Titanium carbide has higher wear resistance

than tungsten carbide

 Nickel-Molybdenum alloy as matrix – Tic

suitable for machining hard materials

 Steels & cast irons

 Speeds higher than those for tungsten

carbide
Inserts
 Inserts

 Individual cutting tool with severed cutting points

 Clamped on tool shanks with locking mechanisms
 Inserts also brazed to the tools
 Clamping is preferred method for securing an insert
 Carbide Inserts available in various shapes-Square,
Triangle, Diamond and round
 Strength depends on the shape
 Inserts honed, chamfered or produced with negative
land to improve edge strength
Insert Attachment

Fig : Methods of
attaching inserts to
toolholders : (a)
Clamping and (b)
Wing lockpins. (c)
Examples of
inserts attached to
toolholders with
threadless
lockpins, which are
secured with side
screws.
 Chip breakers:
Purpose :
 Eliminating long chips
 Controlling chip flow during
machining
 Reducing vibration & heat generated
 Selection depends on feed and depth
of cut
 Work piece material,type of chip
produced during cutting
 Coated tools :

- High strength and toughness but generally

abrasive and chemically reactive with tool
materials

Unique Properties :
 Lower Friction
 High resistance to cracks and wear
 High Cutting speeds and low time & costs
 Longer tool life
 Coating materials
 Titanium nitride (TiN)
 Titanium carbide (Tic)
 Titanium Carbonitride (TicN)
 Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)thickness range – 2-15 µm (80-
600Mu.in)

Techniques used :
 Chemical –vapor deposition (CVD)
Plasma assisted CVD
 Physical-vapor deposition(PVD)
 Medium –temperature chemical- vapor
deposition(MTCVD)
 Properties for Group of Materials

Fig : Ranges of properties

for various groups of
tool materials.
 Ceramics :

 Low thermal conductivity ,resistance ,high temperature

 Resistance to flank wear and crater wear
 Ceramics are suitable materials for tools
 Al2O3 (most commonly used)

Multi Phase Coatings :

 First layer –Should bond well with substrate
 Outer layer – Resist wear and have low thermal
conductivity
 Intermediate layer – Bond well & compatible with both
layers
 Coatings of alternating multipurpose layers are also
formed.
 Diamond Coated tools :

 Use of Polycrystalline diamond as a coating

 Difficult to adhere diamond film to substrate
 Thin-film diamond coated inserts now
commercially available
 Thin films deposited on substrate with PVD & CVD
techniques
 Thick films obtained by growing large sheet of
pure diamond
 Diamond coated tools particularly effective in
machining non-ferrous and abrasive materials
 New Coating materials :

 Titanium carbo nitride (TiCN)

 Titanium Aluminum Nitride(TiAlN)
 Chromium Based coatings
 Chromium carbide
 Zirconium Nitride (ZrN)
 Hafnium nitride (HfN)
 Recent developments gives nano coating & composite coating

Ion Implementation :
 Ions placed into the surface of cutting tool
 No change in the dimensions of tool
 Nitrogen-ion Implanted carbide tools used for alloy steels & stainless
steels
 Xeon – ion implantation of tools as under development
 Cubic boron Nitride
( CBN ) :
 Made by bonding ( 0.5-1.0 mm ( 0.02-0.04-in)
 Layer of poly crystalline cubic boron nitride to a carbide substrate by sintering
under pressure
 While carbide provides shock resistance CBN layer provides high resistance and
cutting edge strength
 Cubic boron nitride tools are made in small sizes without substrate

Fig : (a) Construction of a polycrystalline cubic boron nitride or a diamond layer on a tungsten-carbide insert. (b) Inserts with
polycrystalline cubic boron nitride tips (top row) and solid polycrystalline CBN inserts (bottom row).
 Diamond :

 Hardest known substance

 Low friction, high wear resistance
 Ability to maintain sharp cutting edge
 Single crystal diamond of various carats used
for special applications
 Machining copper—front precision optical
mirrors for ( SDI)
 Diamond is brittle , tool shape & sharpened is
important
 Low rake angle used for string cutting edge
 Polycrystalline-Diamond ( PCD ) Tools:

 Used for wire drawing of fine wires

 Small synthesis crystal fused by high pressure and
temperature
 Bonded to a carbide substrate
 Diamond tools can be used fir any speed
 Suitable for light un-interrupted finishing cuts
 To avoid tool fracture single crystal diamond is to
be re-sharpened as it becomes dull
 Also used as an abrasive in grinding and polishing
operations