RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY

School of Engineering, Energy and the Built Environment,
Department of Energy and Environmental Engineering,
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN REAL ESTATE MANAGEMENT
JANUARY - APRIL, 2023

Mr. Gisesa Innocent Nyakina,

Bachelor of Arts in Real Estate,
M.A in Valuation & Property Management Hons
(Nairobi), REA, RV, MISK
 Course Outline
1.What is research?
2.Preparing a research proposal
3.Literature review
4.Research methodologies
5.Research tools
6.Data collection methods and analysis
7.Referencing Styles
8.Text formatting
9.Basic format of a research report
 1.What is research

• Everywhere our knowledge is incomplete and problems are

awaiting to be solved.We address the void and unresolved
problems by asking questions and seeking answers to them
through a process of inquiry,called Research.
• Research basically involves investigation into what “we /you
do not know”,or into a particular matter we do not
understand properly.
• For instance,how many Kenyan graduates are jobless; or why
have the TSC and teachers failed to find a last solution to the
salary issue?
• Conventionally there are two approaches to research
investigation namely:
a) The deductive method of investigation and
b) The inductive method of investigation
c) However, currently there is a third approach which has
reference to the conventional methods but has distinctive
attributes of its own, called the Scientific Method.
Deductive Method
• Traces its origin to the ancient Greek philosophers, Aristotle
being most prominent.
• The approach reasons from general to specific or from
abstract to concrete premises using a formal argument called
syllogism.
• Syllogism consists of two premises and a conclusion, such
that if the first two premises are true, the conclusion cannot
be false, and the argument will therefore be valid.
• However, if the premises are false, the conclusion might also
be false, although the logic is sound.
• In constructing an argument as the basis for your conclusion,
your arguments must be logical.
• In research you have to accept certain pieces of information
as given, and these are called assumptions.
• If your assumptions are weak, your conclusions will be
faulted.
Examine the following examples:
Example A.
1) Premise 1: All men are mortal
2) Premise 2: Prof Syagga is a man
3) Premise 3(conclusion): Prof. Syagga is mortal
Example B
1)All men are human beings
2)All women are human beings
3)Therefore ,all women are men
Example c
4) Some lecturers are mean
5) No one who is selfish is generous
6) Therefore, some lecturers are not generous
Inductive Method
• This method was advocated by two 16th century philosophers,
Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519) and Francis Bacon(1561-1626)
• The method uses evidence to draw conclusions through process of
collecting specific facts,synthesising them and arriving at conclusions.
• If a body of evidence points to a particular direction,inductive logic
could be applied to the strength of the evidence or conclusion,to
which the evidence points.
• For example,to answer the question: “are flamingos white?”,one
would need to examine all flamingoes to ascertain their colour.
• This may not be possible,and due to lack of evidence,,the answer
arrived at could be “may be”.
• Such an answer is not acceptable in research.
• The feature of inductive reasoning is that from a series of individual
observations,each of which is” true”,but which are not individually conclusive,we put
together a body of evidence from which we arrive at the general conclusion.
• Essential both deducte and inductive methods have weaknesses that make them
somewhat unreliable.
• This has led to the development a more reliable scientific method of research.

Scientific method
• This is a way of thinking where logical thought processes and factual evidence are
components in resolving the problems of everyday life appropriate to many
situations .
• Research therefore is a procedure by which we attempt to find systematically and
with the support of demonstrable fact, the answer to a question or the solution of a
problem.
• Operationally,it is a systematic process of collecting, analysing and interpreting data
in order to express our understanding of a phenomenon under investigation .
1.2.Types of research
When describing types of research, several methods of
classification may be adopted according to:
1.Application categories: what the research is to be used for
namely;
a) Basic research
• Mother of all researches concerned with discovery or
formulation of new principles or theories which would be
used to applied to extend horizons of knowledge
• It involves search f knowledge without a defined goal,or
utility,or specific purpose.
• Its basic objective is to create knoledge and ideas that trigger
inquiring minds into action.
b)Applied research
• A problem-oriented type, directed towards a defined and purposeful end
• It aims at finding solutions to problems facing the society, business,
education or industry
• It involves application of directed theoretical principles with a view to
improving the effects of productivity in the field.
• It uses sampling techniques,and subsequent inferences about the target
population
c)Action research
• This is oriented towards solving a defined problem felt in a specific
situation
• The result of this type of research is not generalised, and to a certain
extent not replicable.
• It has specific methodology and procedure for carrying out the research
2.Methodological approaches namely,qualitative and
quantitative research
3)Aims of the study;what the study aims at achieving namely;
rapid appraisal,desk study/research
4)Time dimensions of the study namely; longitudinal or one-off
cross-sectional study.
1.3.Choice of a research project
• Whatever the source of a topic its viability as a researchable
problem should be be guided by the following
considerations:
i. Universality: can be studied by any other competent
person(detached, not dependent)
ii. Replication: results by different persons will be comparable
iii. Control: central factors to the problem are consistent
iv. Measurement: data be capable of being measured for ease
of collection and interpretation
v. Relevance : scientific/academic relevance in improving or
modifying knowledge in the area of study.
 2.Preparing Research Proposal

2.1.Need for a research proposal

• In the construction industry before setting out for a building commences,
drawings and specification should be in place so that nothing is left to chance.
• Similarly, undertaking a research project requires a written proposal
i. clearly stating the problem,and clearly articulating hypotheses or questions,
ii. specifying every anticipated detail in acquiring and interpreting data,
iii. and defining all the necessary terms.
• Like a construction site,the choice of a research topic must be carefully
evaluated for its buildability/efficacy.
• A research topic can be identified through having experienced a problem or read
about it, and it may also be derived from the need to point the way towards
making certain changes or modifications from an existing situation i.e. practical
relevance/significance to society.
2.2. Research Cycle

Research cycle involves the following logical development

steps referred to as research methodology namely:

i. Problem identification
ii. Formulation of research objectives/questions
iii. Formulation of research hypothesis and/or assumptions
iv. Literature review/what has been done on the topic
v. Research design: scope and methods(where, when and how)
vi. Data collection : instruments, measurements,sampling frame.
vii. Data analysis : description of results
viii. Data interpretation: discussions and inferences
ix. Conclusions: implications of research findings, conclusions, and
recommendations
 2.3. Outline of a proposal for a research project

• The following is an Outline of a Research Proposal

i. Table of contents.
ii. Statement of The Problem
iii. Study Hypothesis
iv. Study Objectives
v. Research Questions
vi. Significance of The Study
vii. Definition of Important Terms
viii. Literature Review/Conceptual Framework
ix. Theoretical Model/Paradigm
x. Research Methodology
xi. Work Plan
xii. References
xiii. Appendices/Annexures
 2.4.Identification of research problem

• Research attempts to answer/address a specific

problem/situation.It starts with identification of a problem
serious and important enough to spend time investigating by
posing the following questions:
i. What is the phenomenon to be investigated: gap in existing
professional knowledge; gap in existing theories; pressing
social problem; etc?
ii. What are the issues/research questions regarding the
phenomenon: need for better skills; ethical issues; upscaling
good practices; etc?
• The research problem then becomes the research topic and will
become/reflected in the title of the study.
• Comparing two sets of data is not a suitable research problem.
It is simply a trip to the data records to reveal what is known
with no mental struggle to the researcher to force the data to
reveal their meaning
• A problem that results in a”yes” or “no” answer is
unsatisfactory. Both situations look at the “froth” that is on
top of the mug and mistake it for the substantive drink below
 2.5.Research objectives/hypothesis/research
questions

• The second step in research is the formulation of

objectives,hypothesis and research questions.
• Research objectives summarise what is to be achieved by the
study, and defines the area of focus in the context of the
statement of the problem.
• Objectives are divided into main/broad and specific
objectives, and they should have the following characteristics
using acronym SMART
 Statement of research objectives

Acronym SMART implies that research objective

should be specific,measurable,achievable,realistic
and time bound,where:
• S= specific :clearly define item for investigation
• M= measurable: quantifiable
• A= achievable :output is realisable/not remote
• R= realistic: not too ambitious
• T= time bound: within specified time/period
 Statement of research questions

• Once objectives are formulated, research questions should be

formulated to narrow down the study to essentials, and to
organize the study in clearly defined issues.
• Good research questions(usually not more than 5) should be
characterized by the acronym “FINER” namely:
F = Feasible: appreciating practical limitations
I = Interesting; sustaining the research process
N = Novel: able to provide new findings
E = Ethical:scientifically and socially sensitive
R = relevant: advancing knowledge, policy, etc
 Formulation of research hypothesis

Formulation of research hypothesis

• A hypothesis is a shrewd guess, an assumption, an explanation, an
informed judgement or an inference that is professionally adopted to
explain facts or conditions or to guide one on how to attack the problem.
• In research a hypothesis is the formulation of the expected
relationship(researcher’s prediction) or tentative explanation between
two or more variables relating to the problem or phenomenon.
• It is a logical supposition, reasonable/educated guess that provides a
tentative explanation for a phenomenon under investigation.
• Each hypothesis provides a direction to proceed in order to acquire
information that may help support or reject hypothesis.
• In practice a hypothesis is not “proved” or “disapproved”; it is either
“supported” or “not supported” by the data.
 Types of research hypothesis

• A hypothesis helps the study in suggesting prediction, explaining outcome and in

guiding the investigation to provide a focus.
Types of research hypothesis
• A hypothesis helps the study in suggesting prediction, explaining outcome and in
guiding the investigation to provide a focus.
• There are two types of hypotheses commonly used in research namely:
i. Alternative hypothesis:This stated in the positive form indicating the direction or
kind of relationship expected.It is concept oriented.
 Public universities are more popular with students that private universities
 There is a positive relationship between use of computers by students in learning
and their performance in Mathematics.
• The choice of alternative hypothesis is appropriate where common
experiences,observations,logic,previous research findings and/or unknown theory
would lend support to the direction indicated,or the affirmation mode.
• If the investigation is preliminary or exploratory without established theory,the
format of the null hypothesis is a better choice.
ii)Null hypothesis
• Null hypothesis is justified where prior knowledge or findings
are lacking, and where there is no basis for predicting the
probable direction or relationship.
• It is a negative form of the hypothesis that the
phenomenon has occurred out of chance, hence non-directional
• The standard language used in null hypothesis usually takes the
form:
 There is no relationship between computer literacy and
performance in Mathematics
 There is no significant difference between performance of boys
and girls in KCPE examinations.
 Research variables

• Variables are quality, properties or characteristics of persons, things

or situation that change or vary such as age,
sex(male/female),education(university,
secondary, primary),size, weight, height, etc.
• In research variables are classified into four types namely:
i. Independent variables: A variable that influences other variables,
i.e. the intervention performed to see change/outcome in the
variables proposed as being dependent on it.It is the presumed
effect.
ii. Dependent variables: A variable predicted/explained.It reflects the
effects or response to the independent variable(appears, disappears,
diminishes or increases). Example; effect of income on food
consumption(bags of maize/rice)
iii. Extraneous/Confronting/Intervening variables:
• Uncontrolled variables that influence both dependent and
independent variables.i.e. threats to the validity of the study
that determine selection,instrument and time factor.
• The presence of these variables allow for alternative
explanations other than variables in the hypothesis.
• For validity of the results,the researcher must find a way to
rule out alternative explanations for the findings.
iii. Background or Demographic variables:
• These are demographic attributes that cannot be manipulated
by the researcher(age,sex,religion.education,et)
• They should be considered for inclusion in the study.
2.6.Statement of significance of the study
• Largely derived from the problem, objectives and research
questions to answer the following questions:
i. What is the issue : problem statement?
ii. What does the research hope to achieve with respect to the
issue: objectives?
iii. Who are the beneficiaries/customers of the research findings:
policy, knowledge, change of behaviour, etc?

WHY IS THE RESEARCH IMPORTANT??

2.7.Study scope/delimitations
• Study scope or delimitation defines how the study will be narrowed in
scope, i.e. setting parameters as to what will be included and what will
be left out and why.
• The study may be delimited to a certain geographical area;people doing a
specific job; a particular method of study(interview,observation,etc);a
specified time frame.
2.8.Study limitations
• This refers to limiting conditions or restrictive weaknesses which are
beyond the control of the researcher, but which may replace restrictions
on the conclusions of the study and their applications to other situations.
• They include time constraint to complete the work; data gathering
instrument that has not been validated; inability to randomly select and
assign subjects to experimental and control groups.
2.8. Definition of important terms
• Clarity and precision in the usage of concepts are achieved by
definitions
• It is important to define all unusual terms that could be
misinterpreted.
• Define terms that individuals outside the field of study may
not understand
• Define terms when they first appear so that meaning remains
consistent.
• Clearly specify what you mean ,do not leave your readers in
suspense and in doubt.
 3. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
• Review of literature is the 3rd step in the research process.
• Research proposals and completed research reports typically
have a section that reviews literature.
• The review describes the theoretical perspectives and
previous research findings regarding the problem at hand.
• It is about starting from the known so as to discern what may
still remain to be known regarding the problem at hand
• It is about identifying the gap in knowledge that still needs
investigation
• The literature review is what is called conceptual framework
and normally ends up with wayforward or good practice,
called CONCEPTUAL MODEL
 3.1.Functions of literature review

• Review of literature serves the following functions:

i. Can offer new ideas, perspectives and approaches not
known/considered by the researcher: this can enhance
development of conceptual model/theoretical
framework.
ii. Can show how others have handled methodological
issues(tools, measurements, analysis) in similar studies
iii. Can reveal methods of dealing with problem situations
similar to the present study.
iv. Provides benchmarking for data interpretation,
conclusions and recommendations
 3.2.Sources of relevant literature

• In order to source for literature pick one or more key words in the
statement of the problem.
• Use the key words to search for literature from the following sources:
i. Library catalogue: books on the subject for concepts and theoretical
perspectives
ii. Indexes and abstracts: index lists articles and research reports; while
abstract provides summary of a research study.
iii. Online databases in libraries and other sources
iv. World Wide Web: surfing search engines- google,altavista,etc
v. Government publications: economic surveys,statistical
abstracts,policy publications,pieces of legislation
vi. Citations and reference lists of previous studies:wherever possible
use the lists to get to original publications
 3.3.Evaluating literature

• Literature review is a summary of theoretical and emperical sources to

generate a picture of what is known/not known about a particular problem
• Literature review is not mere reporting , but an evaluation and synthesis of
what others have done including:
i. Organizing the ideas encountered during the review under themes, ideas,
issues or subtopics
ii. Comparing/contrast varying theoretical perspectives on the topic
iii. Showing how the approaches to the topic have changed over time
iv. Describing general trends in research findings
v. Identifying discrepant or contradictory findings and suggesting possible
explanations for such discrepancies
vi. Identifying general theme that run throughout literature, and construct a
theoretical framework/world view/good practice/what it ought to be.
3.4.Theoretical framework
• In your research proposal you should include a theoretical framework
that would guide and strengthen your study,i.e.a concept or a theoretical
structure that explain the facts and the relationship between them.
• A theory is a series of concepts organised into assumptions and
generalisations that tend to hypothesise about a phenomenon,i.e. a
theory may establish a cause and effect relationship between variables
with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena.
• A theory guides research in a problem area,it facilitates understanding
and analysis of a complex phenomenon,it aids practitioners in making
decisions and it provides a basis for predicting what might occur.
• A theory provides a model or a map of why the world is the way it is
3.5.Conceptual framework
• A conceptual framework is typically derived from theory.
• It identifies the concepts included in the complex phenomenon
and show their relationships
• It explains either graphically or in narrative form, the main
dimensions to be studied, and the presumed relationships among
them.
• The relationships are often presented visually in a fashion chart,
web diagram, or other types of schematic representation.
• Extensive reading of related literature will enable you to develop
conceptual framework – you must produce a concept or build a
theoretical structure that can explain facts and their relationships.
• The following are steps in developing a conceptual
framework:
a) Identify the major concepts involved in the phenomenon
under study
b) Identify the more specific-concepts related to the mar ones
c) Discern how the concepts and the sub-concepts are related
d) Choose a visual representation that will best show how
concepts and sub-concepts are related
e) Write a clear explanation of visual representation
3.6.Conceptual model
• All design related professions prepare a model or miniature
representation, usually in 3 dimensions, of the real object
under consideration.
• In social sciences, models may consist of symbols rather than
structures(e. g. flow chart for policy implementation process,
etc).
• Also models can be represented mathematically,s uch as the
linear demand function model in economics,
Q=b1+b2P,denoting relationship between quantity
demanded(Q) and price(P).
• A model is therefore an explanatory device or a scheme
having a conceptual framework.
• It is a representation of reality; makes explicit the significant
relationship among the aspects in the study; and enables the
formulation of empirically testable proposition regarding the
nature of the relationships.
• The theory may be represented by a visual model,i.e.recast
verbal theories into into casual models,so that the reader can
visualise the interconnections of independent,intervening and
independent variables
 4.RESEARCH DESIGN

4.1.Research design/Research methodology

• Research design is the general approach taken in carrying out
a research project or the process that the investigator will
follow from inception to completion of the study.
• Research methodology on the other hand is the theory or
rationale and assumptions that underlie the use of a set of
methods in research.
• Methodology is concerned with providing explicit details and
reasons for using particular methods rather than employing
them.
• Research design includes the following:
1) Research planning(preparation)
2) Selection of a research method
a) A research method is a scientifically validated or
traditionally accepted, sequentially related steps or
procedures of conducting research in a particular discipline
as defined by research methodology.
b) Research method is therefore a procedure or technique used
to develop appropriate data collection tools, sampling
procedures,data analysis and interpretation(whether
qualitative/quantitative approaches)
3) Selection of measurements/surrogates
• Measurements may be described as:
i. Substantial-physical measurements: span of a bridge, mass of
a chemical compound, etc, or
ii. Insubstantial -intangible things : concepts, ideas, opinions,
feelings
4. Sampling design(target population)
5. Data collection methods(observation, interviews, experiments)
6. Research tools: library, computer, measurement, statistics,
human mind and language
7. Data analysis :parametric, non-parametric)
Selection of a research method
• Selection of appropriate research/approach is the fourth step
in proposal writing and is guided by the following
considerations:
i. Nature/issues of the research problem
ii. State of knowledge about the problem(availability of
information)
iii. Aims and objectives of the research
iv. Skills and creativity of the researcher
v. Availability of the resources(finance,time) for the research
• While the general approach to a research study(research
cycle) may be similar across disciplines, the specific methods
one uses to collect and analyse data may be specific to a
particular academic discipline.
• For instance,one cannot study attitudes using chemical
analysis, just as one cannot study chromosomes using a
questionnaire
• The research method to be selected is either qualitative or
quantitative or a mixture of both as appropriate.
Characteristics of qualitative and quantitative research
methods
Qualitative research : Quantitative research :
1)Attempts to understand the 1).Focuses on relatively small number of
problem in its entirety concepts: concise and narrow
2)Has few preconceived ideas: relies 2) Begins with preconceived
on peoples’ interpretations ideas/assumptions about how the concepts
3) Collects data without formal are inter-related
instruments 3) Uses structured procedures and instruments
4)No control in the context of 4)Collects information under conditions of
research,but captures the whole control
5)Accepts subjectivity in data 5) Emphasizes objectivity in the collection
collection and analysis and analysis of data
6)Analyses narrative information in
6)Analyzes numeric information through
an intuitive fashion
statistical procedures
7)Involves sustained interaction
7)Investigator does not participate in events
with people being studied
under investigation
8)Inductive and dialectic reasoning
are predominant 8)Incorporates logistic, deductive reasoning
 Choice of qualitative vs quantitative research
Choose qualitative research if: Choose quantitative research if:
1) Research question is 1) Research question is
exploratory/interpretive confirmatory/predictive
2) Research focus is in-depth study 2) Research focus is broad
3) Research has measurable objective
3) Research has multiple possible
reality
realities
4) Literature is relatively large
4) Literature is limited
5) Researcher has skills in deductive
5) Researcher has skills in inductive reasoning and statistics
reasoning 6) Researcher has strong skills in
6) Researcher has skills in technical/scientific writing
literary/narrative writing 7) Time available is relatively short
7) Time available is relatively long 8) Desire for structure is high
8) Desire for structure is low 9) Desire/ability to work with people is
low
9) Desire/ability to work with people
10) Audience is familiar with quantitative
is high
studies.
10) Audience is familiar with
qualitative studies
 4.3. Types of qualitative research methods

• Qualitative research is a systematic, subjective approach used to

describe life experiences and give them meaning.
• It is a type of research where the data collected is in the form of
words rather than numbers.
• As a general rule, qualitative research studies do not allow the
researcher to identify cause-effect relationships to answer
questions such as :what caused what or why did such-and-such
happen?
• Qualitative research studies begin with loosely defined research
problems and questions, and only as the study proceeds does the
researcher gain increasing understanding of the phenomenon
under investigation and increasingly begin to ask specific questions
and formulate specific hypothesis.
• Qualitative studies tend to ask open-ended questions at the
beginning of an investigation, sometimes have difficulty
identifying exact methods to use, until they are able to ask
specific questions, and hence specify better methods to
answer those questions.
• Qualitative studies do not strive for objectivity, and often look
subjectively for patterns in the complex phenomenon they
observe.
• Qualitative studies believe that there is no single ultimate
truth to be discovered as there may be multiple perspectives
having equal validity or truth. One goal of such a study might
be to reveal the nature of these multiple perspectives.
• Qualitative studies use various research designs/methods
namely:
i. Historical research
ii. Case study
iii. Grounded theory
iv. Content analysis
v. Participatory research
 Historical research
• Historical research is a type of qualitative research that attempts to
describe and learn from the past, in order to put the problems of today
into proper context.
• Historical research uses primary and secondary sources of data namely:
i. Primary data are those that happened first in time and may found in
archives or in electronic form. It also includes interviews with those who
participated in the events(narrative research or oral history).
ii. Secondary data are works of historians who have interpreted and
written about primary sources. They reflect the assumptions and biases
of people who wrote them
• Primary sources are generally regarded as being closer to whatever
is/was”true” than secondary sources. In both cases, however, the data,
must be subjected scrutiny for validity(external evidence =authenticity
of the source; internal evidence=meaning /interpretation of the words)
 Case study
• A case study is defined as “an in-depth investigation
of an individual, group,institution or phenomenon”
because:
i. It has unique/exceptional qualities that can
promote understanding or inform practice for
similar situations
ii. There is need to compare two or more cases
different in certain ways so as to build theory or
propose generalizations(multiple/collective case
study)
• However, case study results cannot be statistically validated
because no sampling strategy is involved data collection
includes observations(participant/non-participant),
interviews, documents, etc
 Grounded theory

• Unlike other research designs, grounded theory does not begin from a
theoretical framework, but begins with the data and uses them to
develop a theory.
• The theory that emerges from the study is derived from and grounded
in data that have been collected from the field rather than from
literature.
• Data collection is by observations, interviews, tape recorded voices ,etc
• Data analysis begins immediately, and provides direction on what needs
further understanding and what data therefore needs to be collected.
• This process of moving back and forth between data collection and
analysis with data analysis driving later data collection is called
constant comparative method
 Content analysis

• Content analysis is a detailed and systematic examination of

contents of a. particular body of material for purposes of
identifying patterns, themes and biases.
• Content analysis can be both qualitative and quantitative and is
carried out as follows:
i. Identifies specific body of material to be studied
ii. Define characteristics/qualities to be examined
iii. Tabulate the identified characteristics found in the material
being studied, and where appropriate subject the data to
statistical analysis to determine any significant differences
iv. Interpret the data as they reflect on the problem under
investigation
 Participatory Research Approach(PRA)

• A participatory research approach emphasizes the

need for the researcher to acknowledge and appreciate
that local research respondents have the knowledge
and skills to be partners in the research process.
• In PRA the researcher and the respondents collaborate
and learn from each other, and get possible solutions
for the research questions
• PRA is important in generating data from the local
community, for instance, in cases of disease patterns
with which the communities are familiar
 4.4.Types of quantitative research methods/designs

Quantitative research
• Quantitative research is defined as a “formal, objective, rigorous,
systematic process for generating information about the world”.
• Simply stated: a systematic, formal and objective process of
generating information about a phenomenon.
• It uses structured procedures and instruments in data collection; and
incorporates logistic and deductive reasoning in data interpretation.
• Quantitative research can be divided in to three research
designs/methods namely:
i. Descriptive research
ii. Experimental research
iii. Quasi-experimental research
 Descriptive research
• Descriptive research involves systematic collection of data
either to identify the characteristics of an observed
phenomenon or explore possible correlations among two or
more phenomena.
• Data collection involves observations, interviews and
developmental methods(how particular change with
time .i.e.longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches)
• Descriptive research uses correlation to determine between
variables, but in no way attempts to determine cause-and-
effect relationship.
• Correlation itself does not infer causation, without further
analysis carried out through structural modeling or
experimental design to test various hypotheses about what
causes what.
• Descriptive research merely describes phenomenon without
leading to predictions
 Experimental research

• Experimental research attempts to answer what causes what,

through control, manipulation and randomization.
• The researcher considers many possible factors that may
cause/influence a phenomenon,then attempts to control
many influential factors except those whose possible effects
are subject of investigation.
• All experimental designs have one thing in common namely:
identification of dependent and independent variables
• In investigation of cause and effect relationships, one looks at
the extent to which one variable(cause=independent variable)
influences another variable(effect=dependent variable).
 Control in experimental research

• The researcher manipulates the independent variable to

observe its effects on the dependent variable, e.g. effect of
alcohol on human behaviour.
• In order to enable the researcher to draw valid
conclusions(internal validity) about cause and effect
relationship, the study must control confounding variables so
that they are ruled out as explanations for any effects observed.
• The control can involve random selection of participants to
different groups for same intervention,or administering
different interventions to a single group then observe the
effects of the intervention on each group,or effect of different
interventions on the single group
 Quasi-experimental research

• True experiment research emphasiszes the importance of

randomness,either in the selection of group members in a multi-
groups study or in the presentation of different treatments in a
single-group study.
• Sometimes randomness is not possible, so that the researcher uses
quasi-experimental designs where confounding variables cannot
be controlled
• In such a case,the study involves implementing a specific
intervention,and then later examining the effects using selected
methods of measurement.
• Example : observe two groups before intervention.Apply
intervention to one group,then compare the two groups after
intervention.
 5. Research tools

• Every worker needs tools. Research tools are specific

mechanisms or strategies used by a researcher to collect
and manipulate/interpret data in order to drive
meaningful and insightful conclusions.
• Although the tools of research may vary considerably,
depending on the discipline, there are general tools of
research that that majority of researchers need to carry
out their plans and achieve their goals
• The tools of research include the
library,computer,measurement,statistics,human mind
and language.
 5.1.Library and computers as tools of research
i. Library and its sources:
• Library collections in the catalogues include books, abstracts,indexes (in
paper or electronic form). Abstracts and indexes are particularly useful
when conducting literature review.
ii. Computer and its software:
• The internet provides many sources including WWW(world wide
web),electronic mail, etc. a number of search engines(google,yahoo,alta
vista,etc) can be used locate particular sites for information,while
electronic mail allows communication with one another(a document of
any size can be attached to e-mail;or mechanism for electronic
discussion).
• The computer not only helps in literature review but is a competent
assistant in data analysis(statistical software packages) and report
writing(graphic production,writing and editing assistance=word
processing)
 5.2.Measurement as a tool of research

• Measurement is a tool by which data may be inspected,

analyzed and interpreted so that the researcher may probe
the meaning that lies below the surface, and make a
comparison/benchmarking.
• Measurements may be described as substantial(physical
measurements:span of a bridge,mass of a chemical
compound,etc), or insubstantial(intangible
things:concepts,ideas,opinions,feelings).
• Data(substantial/insubstantial) may be measured using
four scales namely: nominal,ordinal,interval & ratio scales
 5.3.Statistics as a tool of research

• Statistics help condense an overwhelming body of data into an

amount of information that the mind can more readily
comprehend.
• Statistics have two important functions to help the researcher
namely:
i. Describe the data(descriptive statistics to measure: central
tendency, spread or dispersion, relative position, relations &
association)
ii. Draw inferences from the data(inferential statistics) which help
the researcher make decisions whether the results observed are
reliable or merely chance(parametric approaches :t-test, z-test,
ANOVA; &non-parametric approaches :notably chi-square, etc)
 5.4.Human mind as a tool of research

• Statistics help condense the large data but cannot

interpret the same and arrive at a logical conclusion to
their meaning without the mind of the researcher.
• Human mind is undoubtedly the most important tool
on the researcher’s workbench with unrivalled powers
of comprehension,integrative reasoning and insight.
• Human mind uses a number of strategies in
understanding the unknown namely: deductive
logic,inductive reasoning,the scientific method,critical
thinking,and collaboration with others.
 Deductive and inductive logic

i. Deductive logic: begins with assumptions which are widely

accepted as “truths”, then reasoning proceeds towards
conclusions.
ii. Inductive reasoning: begins with observations rather than
pre-conceived assumptions. Specific occurences/samples
are used to draw conclusions about entire classes of objects
or events
iii. The scientific method: involves both deductive and
inductive reasoning. Researchers may develop a hypothesis
from a theory(deductive logic) or from observations of
specific events(inductive reasoning).Then using deductive
logic, they make predictions about the patterns they are
likely to see in the data if hypothesis is true. Using inductive
reasoning they often generalize from the data taken from a
sample to describe the characteristics of a large population.
 Critical thinking

Critical thinking: good researchers engage in evaluating

arguments in terms of their accuracy and worth: faulty
assumptions, questionable logic, weaknesses in
methodology, unwarranted conclusions, etc.
v. Collaboration with others: as the ardage goes ”two heads
are better than one”; a single researcher is bound to have
certain perspectives, assumptions, and theoretical biases.
By bringing one or more professional colleagues with
different backgrounds onto the scene, the researcher
brings that many more cognitive resources to bear on how
to tackle the research problem and how to find meaning in
data obtained.
 5.5.Language as a tool of research

• All research must eventually be presented in a written

document called research report.
• The basic requirement for writing such a report is the ability to
use language in a clear,coherent manner.The researcher must
possess the ability to use language with a degree of skill and
accuracy that will clearly delienate all aspects of research
process.
• Say what you mean by choosing your words and phrases
carefully without being vague
• Organise your ideas into general and more specific
categories,using headings and sub-headings to guide readers
through your discussions of these categories.
 6.Data collection methods
1. Data collection methods
2. Data reliability and validity
3. Sampling
• Data refers to a collection of natural phenomena descriptors
including the results of experience,observation or experiment.
• Data may comprise numbers,text or narratives,voices or
images.
• When a set of data is analysed,it becomes information
• When information is interpreted and given meaning,it
becomes knowledge.
• Application of knowledge leads to innovation.
• Generally the research question and the nature of the variable
under investigation usually drive the choice of the method of
data collection.
 Interviews
• Interview is an oral administration of an interview schedule or a
questionnaire through face-to-face or telephone contact.
• An interview schedule can have structured, semi-structured or
unstructured questions. Structured questions have categories of
responses, while unstructured questions are open ended and probing
questions.
• A structured interview schedule often used in quantitative research is a
formal and written document where questions are asked orally(face-to-
face or telephone) and the responses are recorded by the interviewer.
• Key informant/(KIIs) with key-informants (people with special positions in
community and looked upon as representatives of opinions and
experiences of a whole group) are conducted using semi-structured
questionnaires. This provides valuable and independent information
within a short span of time with considerable savings in cost.
• Focus group discussions(FGDs) are interviews with groups of 5-15 people
whose opinions and experiences are solicited simultaneously. It allows
large numbers of respondents to be interviewed at one, which saves time
and money.
 Observations

• Under the observation method, the information is sought by of

investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the
respondent.
• It does not rely on what people say they do, or what they say
they think.
• The research observers should not go with preconceived
conceptual framework, but with an open mind and develop their
frameworks purely on basis of their field experience.
• There are two kinds of observation methods notably, systematic
observation and participant observation.
• Systematic observation uses an observation checklist to be used
by each observer so as to avoid inconsistency and subjective bias
• Participant observation is where the observer participates in
the daily life of the people under study, either openly in the
role of a researcher, or covertly in some disguised role,
observing things that happen, listening to what is said, and
questioning people, over some length of time.
• This type of qualitative data-gathering requires observation of
an activity, behaviour, relationship, phenomenon, network or
process in the field
• The observation is supplemented by information gathered
through qualitative interviews with key informants,and other
sources
Questionnaire and schedule method
• Both questionnaire and schedule are lists of questions in a set
form to be pointed out to the respondents in a prescribed
sequence.
• The questionnaire is self-administered,hence the questions
are addressed to the respondent
• In the schedule,on the other hand,the corresponding
instructions are for the trained interviewer who will
administer the schedule to the respondent.
Documentary method
• Documents are an important source of data in many areas of
investigation
• The documentary data sources include reports,
autobigraphies, court decisions, academic work, books,
periodicals, etc.
• Documentary data is not necessarily trstworthy, and should
therefore be subjected to careful criticism to establish
authenticity.
 Formal testing
• Before developing an instrument such as questionnaires
and checklists ,always consider existing data collection
methods in areas where standards exist.
• For instance, instruments exist in psychology and education
that allow researchers to measure personality,
temperament, career interest, academic achievement,
intelligence, etc with established reliability and validity
• Similarly, in medical and psychobiological research,
instruments exist to measure the physiological responses of
participants to any number of potential stimuli. The most
common examples of responses include heart rate,
respiration, blood pressure, galvanic skin response, etc.
 6.2.Reliability and validity of data measurements

• The research method will affect the way in which data will be collected.
Employing faulty tools will provide little value in solving the problem.
Thus instruments used should have a reasonable degree of validity and
reliability.
• Validity of a measuring instrument is the extent to which the instrument
measures what it is actually intended to measure. What data are you
collecting and what instruments are using to collect the same? For instance,
a ruler measures length, a barometer measures pressure. In opinion
surveys, instruments used include structured interview
schedules(questionnaires),focus group discussions(FGDs),in-semi-
structured questionnaires(in-depth interviews with key informants) and
non-participatory structured observation(observing a given situation
without involvement)
• Reliability of a measuring instrument is the extent to which it yields
consistent results when the characteristics being measured have not
changed. For instance, there are standardized ways of taking body
temperature or determining the crushing strength of concrete. Even for
subject judgements such as beauty or honesty, there should be specific
criteria established to dictate the kinds of judgements the researcher makes.
 6.3.Sampling

• A study may target a large area or a large group of items to be

studied.The entire group or persons or set of objects and
events to be studied is called population.The most important
aspect is that the population must possess all the
characteristics(variables) the researcher is interested in.
• Given that the researcher cannot be everywhere at once or take
every possible view point at the same time, the researcher
need to get to the general population through a sample
• A sample is a group of people, or records or a number of
observations from a larger population.The process of selecting
the sample for the study is called sampling. A comprehensive
list of all the sampling elements in a target population(number
of contractors in Nairobi,marks of students in a class) is called
sampling frame.
• The sample selected should be representative .i.e. the sample
has to resemble the population from which it is drawn in all
aspects.
• A sampling bias occurs where researcher has not carefully
selected the samples that are expected to represent the general
target population, resulting in negative impact on the study
findings.
 Sampling techniques
• There are two basic-sampling techniques
namely,i)Probability/random sampling and ii)Non-
probability sampling
• Probability sampling involves a random selection procedure
to ensure that each unit of the sample is chosen on the basis
of chance .i.e. all units of study population have an equal or
at least a known chance of being included in the sample
from the list provided.
• In non-probability sampling the researcher does not
guarantee that each element of the population has a chance
of being included in the sample.
 Probability/random sampling

• Random sampling can take many forms: simple random

sampling; systematic/interval sampling;stratified random
sampling;multstage sampling.
• Simple random sampling involves the following steps:
i. Identifying the target population
ii. Formulating an appropriate sampling frame
iii. Determining the sample size for the study
iv. Adapting consecutive identification number for each unit
in the sampling frame
v. Selecting the desired subjects(use lottery,toss a
coin,random tables in order to start)
• Systematic or interval sampling: subjects are selected at
intervals/pre-determined sequence.(2nd,4th,6th: sample frame/sample
size
)
• Stratified random sampling divides the population into
groups called strata, then simple random systematic
sampling is applied to each stratum.
• Multistage refers stage sampling:i)sample the primary
areas(province/district),ii) sample divisions from each
district,iii) sample locations in each division,iv) sample
sublocations,v) sample households in each sub-
location for interviews
 Non-probability sampling

• There are three methods of non-probability sampling

known as convenient, purposive and quota sampling.
• Convenience sampling or accidental sampling picks those
units that are readily available such as those who arrive
on the scene by chance
• Purposive sampling used mainly in qualitative research,
when units are chosen for a particular purpose
• Quota sampling ensures that a certain number of sample
units from different categories with specific
characteristics appear in the sample so as to represent
all characteristics
 Sample size

• According to Arleck and Settle(1995),it is seldom

necessary to sample more than 10% of the
population provided that the resulting sample is
not less than 30 and not more than 1000
units.They recommend the following as adequate
i. A minimum sample of 100 for 1,000 population
ii. A sample of 100-500 for 5,000 population
iii. A sample of 200-1,000 for >10,000 population
 Sample size formulae

• Mugenda and Mugenda(1999), recommend use of the following

formular to determine sample size:
If target population is 10,000 or more then:
s=z*z*p*q/(d*d), where s=desired sample;z=standard normal
deviate((1.96),p=% target population(50%),q=1-p,d=the level of
statistical significance test(0.05):
s=(1.96*1.96*0.5*0.5)/0.05*0.05=384
• Bernard(1995) proposes sample size to be :
sp= chi-s*N*p(1-p)/(c*c)(N-1)+chi-square*p(1-p),where
sp=desired sample ; chi-s=chi-square value for I degree of
freedom;N=population size;% of target population of a
variable(0.5);c=confidence interval chosen(0.05).
 6.4. Data analysis and hypothesis testing

Data analysis
• This refers to the process of interpreting the survey data.
• It is part intuition(knowing which variable to examine and what
relationships to explore and part computational(totals, means,
proportions, etc)
• The basic objective of the analysis is to describe answers given to
questions and the relationships between answers to different
questions.
Choice of appropriate method of data analysis
• The appropriate analysis method for survey data is totally
dependent on who is surveyed, the survey’s design and the type of data that are
collected.
• The researcher must be aware of what he/she is looking for so as to choose a method
that will bring out its quantitative meaning.
Data Analysis in qualitative research studies
• In qualitative studies analysis of data refers to non-empirical
analysis.
• For instance case studies, content analysis and historical
studies may not require quantifiable data.
• In such studies researchers obtain detailed information about
the phenomenon being studied, and then try to establish
patterns,trends and relationships from information gathered.
• The researcher is interested in analysing information in a
systematic way in order to come to some useful conclusions
and recommendations.
 Data analysis in quantitative research

• In analysing the data ,particularly quantitative data,the

researcher uses statistical methods at two levels namely
i. Descriptive Statistics,and
ii. Inferential Statistics
• The table below provides a guide for the choice method of
data analysis.
 Methods of Data Analysis in Quantitative Research

No Purpose Type of data Nature of Method of

Measurement Questions Analysis
1 Descriptive Ordinal What is A Mean,median,
Statistics like(size, mode,standard
frequency ,perc deviation,
entages, coefficient of
proportion varation
,variability)
2 Comparison Interval,Ratio, Is A like B? t-test,
Ordininal Is A different z-test,ANNOVA,
from B? Chi-square
Is A better than
B?
3 Relationship Interval, Ratio Does A affect Regression
B? Analysis
Or Can you
predict B from
A?
4 Association Interval,Ratio Is A related to Regression &
B? Correlation
5 Trends Ordinal,Interval How does A ANNOVA
behave
towards B?
Or how do A&B
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
• Descriptive statistics summarise the data in such a way that
they can be meaningfully understood and communicated.
• Data is described in terms of:
a) Measures of central tendency(mean,median,mode)
c) Measures of spread or dispersion(range,variance,standard
deviation,coefficient of variation)
d) Measures of relative position(%rank ,%score, standard
score)
e) Measures of relations and association(correlation and
regression)
• Variability or dispersion concerns the extent to which values of a
data set differ from their computed mean
• In general the greater the spread,the greater the variability
 Standard deviation(denoted by ∂) is a very important measure of
dispersion - it is used to compare two or more sets of observations.
 The larger the value of standard deviation,the more the individual
observations are spread around the mean,and the smaller the
standard deviation the less the individual observations are spread
around the mean.
 If there is need to compare the dispersion of more than one
distribution,a measure of relative dispersion called coefficient of
variation(CV= (∂/µ ×100)) can be used
 It shows which distribution is more dispersed, expressed in % terms.
Measures of Association and Relationship use correlation
analysis and regression analysis
• Correlation analysis is the statistical tool used to describe the
degree to which one variable is linearly related to another.
• It measures the degree of closeness, or association, between
two variables ,and the strength of the relationship between
them.
• Two measures of correlation are used namely
i. The coefficient of determination(r2 ),and
ii. The coefficient of correlation(r = √r2)
Coefficient of determination
• Coefficient of determination(r2) is the square of the
correlation(r) and is a more precise measure of the strength
of relationship between the variables.
• It measures the proportion of variation in the dependent
variable Y that is explained or accounted for by the variation
in independent variable X in the regression model(explained
variation/total variation).See formular for r
• The value is positive and ranges from 0 to 1,as the association
increases in strength.
Coefficient of Correlation
• This is the square root of r2,and varies from -1 to 1
• -1 measures a perfect inverse linear correlation between
variables X&Y, while 1 signifies perfect positive correlation
between the two variables.
• When r=0 the two variables are not linearly related.
• The algebraic sign of r is the same as that of b in the
regression equation,so that if b is positive in the regression
equation the r will be positive and vice-versa.
Regression Analysis
• A powerful in statistics used to predict the value of one
variable given the value of another, when the two variables
are related to each other.
• Simple linear regression is used as a technique is used to
judge whether a relationship exists between Y&X, to estimate
the mean value of Y, and to predict future value of Y for a
given value of X.
• It is expressed in the form Y=a +bX
• Multiple regression is a logical extension analysis and involves
two or more independent variables forming the basis for
estimating the values of a dependent variable.
• However, while the line of best- fit in a simple regression is
identified by a single straight line, the line of best fit in the
case of multiple regression is a line through n-dimensional
space where n is the total of number of variables.
• The formula for multiple regression extends the equation by
adding one term for each additional variable as follows:
Y=a+b1X1+b2X2+……..bnXn+E
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS AND TESTS OF HYPOTHESIS
• Provides the method of drawing conclusions about a population based upon
observations of a sample
• The parametric tests are limited to data that are interval or a ratio
• The statistical tests designated for this purpose are called parametric tests of
significance, and categorized into
(a)parametric approaches and (b)non-parametric approaches
a) Parametric approaches
The t-test(also called student distribution)
• Used for small samples of less 30,with unknown standard deviation.
• Used to test if there was a statistically significant difference between the
mean scores of two groups- the experimental group& the control group
• It is not used when population variance is known, so that the more
powerful z-test is used.
• It most often used in conjunction with research designs to scrutinize
differences in scores-achievements, attitude, or whatever between
experimental and control groups.
• Read the t-statistic formula.
The z-test
• Used when either standard deviation is known or when
sample >30.
• The significance test asks whether the null hypothesis is
tenable, given the sample test
• Read the z-statistic formula.
iii)Analysis of Variance(ANOVA):
• A statistical procedure designed to analyze the difference between
the means of two or more samples.
• While the t-test can only determine significance of difference
between two means at a time, ANOVA can determine differences
of more than two means with a single test
• If you want to find out if three or more means were significantly
different, then use ANOVA.
• There are two types of analysis in ANOVA namely
 The one way ANOVA where one factor or variance is considered,
e.g.effect of alcohol on three different people .
 The two way ANOVA is where effects or outcome of more than one
treatment are being compared.
• The statistical significance is assessed by an F-test or ratio obtained
by dividing the mean square between groups by the mean square
within groups.
• The basic ingredient of ANOVA procedure is the sum of squares i.e.
the total squared differences or the deviation between a set of
individual scores and the mean.
• Divide the sum of squares between the groups and the sum of
squares within groups by the degrees of freedom to obtain two
estimates of variance that are needed.
• The F-ratio is used to estimate the mean squares between and
within the groups thus=MSb/MSw
• If the value of F obtained equals or exceeds the tabled value, we
reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis that
there are significant differences between the groups, presumably
due to the effect of experimental treatment.
• If the F-value obtained is smaller than the table value, the
hypothesis is retained, the differences in the group means therefore
being a function of chance and therefore not statistically significant.
b)Non-parametric approaches
• Often there is need to test hypothesis with data that are ordinal
or nominal, or with interval data that are not normally
distributed, or that fail to meet assumptions for the use of
parametric tests, hence the need to use non-parametric tests.
• Non-parametric tests do not depend on the shape of the
distribution of the population, hence they are known as data
distribution-free tests.
• They are most useful when dealing with qualitative values, and
the data that can be classified in order of ranks.
• They do not require laborious computations such as calculation
of standard deviations as in the case of parametric approaches.
• However, because they are based on counted or ranked data,
rather than measured values, they are less precise, less sharp,
and are unlikely to reject a null-hypothesis when it is false.
• A number of non-parametric tests are used including chi-
square,Mann_Whitney and Wilcoxon sign rank test.
• Chi-square is,however,the most commonly used non-
parametric technique.
CHI-SQUARE
• The essence of Chi-square test is a comparison of frequencies
namely,i) those that are observed to occur in each category(fo) and
ii) those that were expected to occur in each category.
• The difference between the number of cases that did fall into each
category and the number cases that were expected to occur in each
category are compared.
• The test for goodness of fit compares empirical derived
data(expected as frequencies) with theoretical expected results
• For example,the researcher may be interested in slarity(goodness
of fit) between the distribution of a sample of observations,and the
distribution of cases that previous research or theory would
suggest.
• Contingency tables are used in chi-square analysis to
compare two empirical data expressed as frequencies in
testing for a significant relationship between two variables.
• For instance,a contingency table may be organised to test the
relationship between gender and the production of doctors
and lawyers; or even to compare the number of dogs
contracting rabies in cases of vaccinated and unvaccinated
dogs.
• The formula for chi-square is given as:
• X2=∑(f0-fe)2/fe, X is chi-square,fo is observed frequency,fe is
expected frequency and ∑ is summation
 10.Presentation of a Research Report

• The research output is a research report or research paper. The report may
be presented for the award of a post graduate diploma,masters or higher
degrees.
• The University of Nairobi has published a manual for presentation of the
various research reports(available in the website of the School of
Postgraduate Studies.
• This is a general content of an academic research report.
Preliminaries
i. Title
ii. Declaration
iii. Table of contents
iv. Abstract
v. Acknowledgements
vi. Dedication
 Main text

1. Introduction
i. Background to the study
ii. Problem statement
iii. Objectives of the study
iv. Study hypothesis
v. Research questions
vi. Significance of the study
vii. Scope of the study
viii. Definition of key terms
2. Literature Review
i. Suitable subheadings/issues under discussion
ii. Summary of each section
iii. Conceptual framework/model/paradigm
 Main text
3. Methodology
i. Introduction/Overview(nature of the research)
ii. Sampling design
iii. Research design
iv. Methods of data collection
v. Analysis techniques
4.Data Presentation
vi. Study area
vii. Results of findings with respect to each
objective(narrative,tables,charts,etc without excessive interpretation
and discussion)
viii. Serendipitious outcome or consequences(relevant matters which though
not part of the study are uncovered in the course of investigation).
 Main text

5.Data analysis/Interpretation
• The findings that have been outlined are subjected to scrutiny in
terms of what they mean.
• They are interpreted with reference to the theories and ideas,
issues and problems, that were noted earlier as providing the
context in which the research is undertaken
• The analysis should also include the wider implications of the
data, giving hints of conclusions and recommendations to which
they logically lead.
• The interpretation should take cognizance of the reliability,
validity and possible biases in the whole research process that
may render the results less meaningful and worthy of replication
 Main text
6.Conclusion
i. Summary of the findings/results
The statement of the problem, explanation of methodology, presentation of the results,
and interpretation of the results should be arranged in a consistent manner.
ii. Conclusions
State in unqualified terms what the findings are. The findings should then be related to
other evidences or hypotheses as described in the main body, including a comparison with
other similar studies. Where appropriate, a variety of options arising from the study
should be explained. Conclusions should not contain any ideas not previously raised in the
report.
iii. Recommendations
Recommendations should be as short as possible, preferably using bullets or numbers. The study
should also give suggestions for additional research(for questions you were unable to answer, and
for new questions set forth for possible investigation.

7. Bibliography

8. Annextures
 8. Text formatting
• The formatting for titles and sub-titles should be
consistent, and should preferably not exceed 5 levels as
follows:
i. Level 1: chapter title in capital letters and
centered:CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH MTHODOLOGY
ii. Level 2: 3.1. Data Collection, being main chapter sub–
head in title case. Centered
iii. Level 3: 3.1.1. Sampling, being the second sub-heading,
in title case.Left aligned
iv. Level 4: 3.1.1.1. Sample size in sentence case
v. Level 5:Not numbered,indented and in sentence case
 7.Referencing styles

• A research proposal should adopt a standard manner of referencing that will

eventually be used in the preparation of the report.
• A number of referencing styles are in use namely:
i. Havard system;developed at the Havard University in the 1930s,and uses author
and date as form of referencing in the text; authors listed alphabetically by last
name in the bibliography; and publisher followed by place of publication .
ii. APA system:American Psychological Association Publication Manual is a
variation of author-date system, with place of publication followed by publisher.
iii. Australian system: a combination of Havard and APA systems,with publisher
followed by place of publication but separated by a comma. This a relatively
popular system of referencing.
iv. Vancouver system: widely used in health and medical science journals, with a
system of numbering in brackets in the text.Authors in the bibliography are listed
according to numbers in the text.
 7.1.Havard system

• No punctuation after initials or date

• Names of multiple authors joined by ”and”
• Books and journal names in title case(capital letters for the
first letters of key words)
• Comas separate publishing elements (publisher,place)
• Edition without brackets or punctuation: 4th edition
• Publisher followed by place of publication.
• Example: Syagga,P M(1994) Real Estate Valuation
Handbook.University of Nairobi Press,Nairobi.
 7.2. APA system

• Full stops after initials and date

• A comma separates multiple authors, and names joined by
“&”
• Book names in sentence case(capital for the first letter of the
first word and pronouns)
• Journal names in title case
• Full stop after title or edition and colon after place of
publication
• Edition with brackets and full stop:(4th edition.)
• Pace of publication followed by publisher.
• Example: Syagga, P.M.1994.Real estate valuation handbook.
Nairobi:University of Nairobi Press.
• Basic Format for Books
• Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter
also for subtitle. Location: Publisher.
 7.3.Australian style manual

• Full stops after initials and date without brackets around the
date
• Multiple authors linked by “and” without a preceding coma
• Title case for books and periodical names
• Edition numbers in brackets
• Publisher followed by place of publication, joined by a comma
• Normal punctuation rules for abbreviations
• Example: Syagga,P.M. 1994.Real Estate Valuation
Handbook.University of Nairobi Press,Nairobi.
9.Work Plan
A research proposal should include a workplan showing among other things:
i. Itemised research activities to be undertaken including:
• Desk study/preparation of the proposal
• Preparation of the survey instruments
• Pre-testing of survey instruments
• Field work/data collection/laboratory experiments
• Data analysis and interpretation
• Report writing
ii. Timelines for each activity in the form of ghannt chart
iii. Anticipated expenditure for each activity, and total for the whole
research
iv. Sources of funding for the research
END OF COURSE

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