GSU07407:RESEARCH METHODS

FOR ENGINEERS
By Dr. Mutta
GS Dept
Introduction
a) Meaning of research
 Research is an examination, exploration, or
investigation of a phenomenon/event to get a
solution to a problem.
 A systematic study carried out to discover facts
needed to make appropriate decisions.
 A way of getting solutions to problems through a
planned systematic collection, analysis and interpretation
of data.

 Research then is the process of systematic

collection, analysis and interpretation of data in
order to make decision and solve problems
Introduction
b) Characteristics of Research
 Systematic-the procedures adopted to undertake an

investigation follow a certain logical sequence. For

example: problem identification, review of literature,
etc.
 Objective- since it is systematic, it is unbiased since

it is free from personal feelings.

 Valid and justifiable-your conclusion based on

findings is correct and can be verified by everyone.

 Controlled-one should set up a study in a way that

minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the

relationship
Introduction
b) Characteristics of research
 Rigorous- the procedures used to find

answers to the questions should be relevant,

scrupulous and meticulous
 Reliability –means whether or not

measurements are consistent, i.e. if similar

findings will be achieved if a study is
repeated.
Introduction
c) Means for acquiring knowledge
 Research is not the only means for getting knowledge. (i)There

are also other means apart from research.

 Intuition-getting knowledge through a quick insight without

relying on rational reasoning. The knowledge comes from past

experience. It is based on personal insight or instinct.
 Logic-getting knowledge through correct reasoning. E.g. John

stole my money in the room since he was the only person I left in
the room
 Authority-accepting new ideas because some authority figures

state that they are true. Some authority figures include: parents,
priests, doctors, etc.
 Experience-understanding based on one’s life experience. E.g.

All writing boards are black (just because no exposure to black

boards).
Assignment

 1. Explain, with relevant examples the

significance of research to; (a) the
development of Tanzania (b) the engineering
sector in Tanzania.
 2. Why does the community of scientists trust
research as the best source of knowledge?
 3. Why is research regarded as a scientific
approach to seeking answers to problems?
 What makes research different from other
means for acquiring knowledge such as: logic,
experience, instinct, authority, etc.
Types of research
 Research can be categorized based on three
perspectives;
 i) Application of the findings of research

study,
 ii) Objective of the study,
 iii) Mode of inquiry.
Types of research
 Application perspective: It can be categorized
into two parts; (how research results are
used)
 i) Pure or basic/fundamental/primary

research: It is regarded as the mother of

science. It mainly focuses on knowledge
generation. Invention, discovery and scientific
creativity have been made possible by this
type of research. Theories and scientific laws
have been created through this type.
Types of research
 ii) Applied research: This is concerned with using
research findings to solve a problem or formulate
policies, principles . Research knowledge is used to
solve some other problems such as formulating a policy.
 Objective perspective:
 i) Descriptive research: Describes a situation, problem,
phenomenon, service or program or provides
information about the living condition of a community,
or describes attitudes towards an issue.
 ii) Correlational research :Attempts to discover/establish
the existence of a
relationship/association/interdependence between two
or more aspects of a situation.
Types of research…
 iii) Explanatory research: Focuses on
clarifying why and how there is a relationship
between two aspects of a
situation/phenomenon.

 iv) Exploratory research: This is done with the

objectives of either to explore an area where
little is known or investigate the possibilities
of undertaking a particular research study.
Types of research…
 Mode of inquiry: What methods do you apply
in getting your findings?
 i) The qualitative research: Variables findings
are described qualitatively. They are assigned
qualitative value, i.e. are assigned word value.

 ii) Quantitative research: Variables are

expressed in quantity, i.e. they are assigned
numerical value. Variables/phenomena, data,
are quantitatively expressed.
Variables
 Variables
 A variable refers to a factor of characteristics of interest
that a researcher would like to handle, observe, investigate
or manipulate in the research process. e.g. age, sex,
height, weight, level of empowerment, etc.

 Types of variables
 a) Independent variables: also known as explanatory
variables
 These are factors which explain variation in the dependent
variables. (In other words these are the causes/causing
factors). . Example, there is a significant difference between
academic performance and long distance from home to
school.
Types of variables…
 b) Dependent variables: It is the outcome results the researcher
is attempting to predict. Variation in the dependant variable is
what the researcher is trying to explain. Usually there is only
one dependent variable.

 c) Extraneous variables: It refers to as any variable other than

the independent variable that could cause change in the
dependent variable. It is also defined as any variable that you
are not intentionally studying in your research but can threaten
the internal validity of your results.

 Example: If a teacher wants to test the hypothesis that there is

a relationship between students’ performance in English and
their hard work, then, there is the issue of intelligence, which is
an extraneous variable.
Research process
 A journey which a researcher takes from the initial point
to the last point of the study.

 This process entails steps which are logically arranged to

enable a researcher meet the targeted objective(s).

 There are two main parts which a researcher needs to

develop in order to complete the research process.

 The research has to develop a research proposal at the

beginning of the process and end with a research report
as the final document showing the results and
implications of the research done.
Research process
 Research proposal: shows what is to be done, where,
when, how and for what reasons. It is the researcher’s
guide towards getting a solution to the research
problem. The research proposal includes three main
chapters.
 A research proposal has three main parts (chapters)

 Chapter one(Introduction)

 Chapter two (Literature review)

 Chapter three (Research methodology)

Developing a research proposal
Steps
a) Selecting a topic:
Subject, issue or area under study
Area of interest of the researcher
What puzzles a researcher

b) Narrowing down the area of study to a

manageable unit of knowledge
Selecting a research title
A research title has the following characteristics;
 It signals what the research is all about
 It indicates the research problem
 It indicates the variable (s)
 It shows the task of the researcher (through action verb)
 It may signal the time and location of the research

Examples of research titles

 1. ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECT OF MOTIVATION FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

LEARNING MATHEMATICS IN TANZANIA

 2. AN
EXAMINATION OF THE EFFECT OF STRATEGIC STRESS MANAGEMENT
ON EMPLOYEE WORK PERFORMANCE: a CASE STUDY OF NIMRI WORKERS
FROM 2000 TO 2010 IN TANZANIA
Research problem…
A research problem is a challenge a
researcher faces in his practical or theoretical
experience.
 A research problem is different from normal

life problem such as hunger or disease.

 Unlike normal life problem, research problem

has to be stated by the researcher for it to be

a problem.
Research problem…
Characteristics of a research problem
 Can be stated clearly and concisely.

 Generates research questions.

 It is grounded in theory.
 It relates to one or more academic fields of study.
 It has a base in the research literature.
 It has potential significance/importance.
 It is do-able within the time frame, budget.
 Sufficient data are available or can be obtained.
 The researcher’s methodological strengths can be applied

to the problem.
 The problem is new; it is not already answered

sufficiently.
Writing chapter one
 Chapter one (Introduction) entails;
i. The background to the study
ii. Statement of the research problem
iii. Objective of the study (General and Specific)
iv. Research question/Hypothesis
v. Significance of study
vi. Scope of the study
vii. Limitation of the study
Background to the problem
 Background information identifies and describes the
history and nature of a well-defined research problem
with reference to the existing literature.
 it indicates the root of the problem being studied,

appropriate context of the problem in relation to theory,

research, and/or practice, its scope.
 It indicates the extent to which previous studies have

successfully investigated the problem, noting, in

particular, where gaps exist that your study attempts to
address.
 Background to the problem does not replace the literature

review section of a research paper; it is intended to place

the research problem in a proper context.
Statement of the problem
 Put the problem in context (what do we
already know?)
 Describe the precise issue that the research

will address (what do we need to know?)

 Show the relevance of the problem (why do

we need to know it?)

 Set the objectives of the research (what will

you do to find out?)

General objective
 Research objectives describe concisely what the research
is trying to achieve.
 They summarize the accomplishments a researcher
wishes to achieve through the project and provides
direction to the study.
 A research objective must be achievable, i.e., it must be
framed keeping in mind the available time, infrastructure
required for research, and other resources.
 Before forming a research objective, you should read
about all the developments in your area of research and
find gaps in knowledge that need to be addressed.
 This will help you come up with suitable objectives for
your research project.
Specific objective
 Specific objectives break down the general
objective into smaller, logically connected
parts that systematically address the various
aspects of the problem.
 Each objective should begin with a verb that

describes an observable behavior, such as

"describe, summarize, demonstrate, compare,
plan, score", etc. You can observe the
participant and measure how well the
objective was met.
Examples of objectives
 General objective:
 The general objective of this study is to

examine the contribution of community

participation in enhancing sustainability of
natural resources management in Shinyanga
district.
Examples …
 Specific objectives:
Specifically the study intends to:
 Identify the main natural resources in Shinyanga

district.
 Determine the extent of community participation in

natural resource management in Shinyanga district.

 Examine the quality of community participation in

natural resource management in Shinyanga district.

 Evaluate the impact of community participation on

natural resource management in Shinyanga district.

Research questions
 A research question is a question that a
research project sets out to answer
 Good research questions seek to improve

knowledge on an important topic, and are

usually narrow and specific
 To form a research question, one must

determine what type of study will be

conducted such as a qualitative, quantitative,
or mixed study.
Examples of research questions
 This study will be guided by the following
questions:
 1. What are natural resources in Shinyanga district?
 2. To what extent does the community participate
in the natural resource management in Shinyanga
district?
 3. How is the community participation in terms of
quality?
 4. How does community participation influence
natural resource management in Shinyanga
district?
Research hypothesis
 A prediction of the research results
 Such a prediction may be based on a formal
theory or an educated guess
 Examples:
 1. First grade 1 girls will show better reading
comprehension than grade 1 boys.
 The hypothesis predicts the relationship of the
two variables; gender v/s comprehension
 2. Children who are shown a video with violence
will be more aggressive in playground compared
to those who were shown a non-violent video.
Hypothesis …..
 Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis;
 Experimental hypothesis suggests that in testing
the hypothesis the experiment will be used.
Example 2 is one of the example
 Children who are shown a video with violence
will be more aggressive in playground compared
to those who were shown a non-violent video.
 Non-experimental, the hypothesis does not
suggest experiment in testing hypothesis.
Example 2;
Hypothesis …
 Example 1; First grade 1 girls will show better
reading comprehension than grade 1 boys.
Directional and non-directional hypothesis
Directional hypothesis;
 A directional hypothesis is a prediction made

by a researcher regarding a positive or negative

change, relationship, or difference between two
variables of a population.
 This prediction is typically based on past

research, accepted theory, extensive

experience, or literature on the topic
Hypothesis…
 Key words that distinguish a directional
hypothesis are: higher, lower, more, less,
increase, decrease, positive, and negative
 Examples 1&2 are directional hypothesis
 Non-directional hypothesis simply states the

difference of variables without showing the

direction of the difference
 Example; the child-rearing practices of Tribe

A are different from those of Tribe B.

Hypothesis …
 Research questions therefore are stated like non
directional hypothesis
 Example: what is the difference between rearing

practices of children in Tribe A and that of Tribe

B?
 NB: the choice of research questions and

research hypothesis is a matter of personal taste.

Null and alternative hypothesis; - Null: This is a
hypothesis that proposes no relationship or
difference between two variables, It is denoted as
H0 . Alternative:
Hypothesis…
 The rejection of the null hypothesis indicates
that the differences have statistical significance
and the acceptance of the null hypothesis
indicates that the differences are due to chance.
 Alternative hypothesis: It proposes a
relationship between two or more variables,
symbolized as H1.Examples
 H1:Music at a fast tempo is rated by participants
as being happier than music at a slow tempo.
H0: Music at a fast tempo and at a slow tempo
is rated the same in happiness by participants.
Hypothesis...
 Questions
 1. what are the characteristics of a good

hypothesis?
 Explain with examples the importance of the

hypothesis to a researcher
Significance of the study
 The significance of the study is a section in the
introduction of your thesis or paper.
 Its purpose is to make clear why your study

was needed and the specific contribution your

research will make to furthering academic
knowledge in your field
 The parties/people/or organizations to benefit

from the study made should be identified

 How they will benefit should also be indicated.
Scope of the study
 The scope of a study explains the extent to
which the research area will be explored in
the work and specifies the parameters within
the study.
 Basically, this means that you will have to

define what the study is going to cover and

what it is focusing on
 Similarly, you also have to define what the

study is not going to cover.

Study limitation
 Are those characteristics of design or
methodology that may impact or influence the
interpretation of the findings.
 Are the constraints placed on the ability to

generalize from the results, to internal and

external validity
 Are result of unanticipated challenges that

emerged during the study (once you have done

the study)
Chapter three : Literature review
 A literature review is an account of what has
been published on a topic by accredited
scholars and researchers.
 In writing the literature review, your purpose is
to convey to your reader what knowledge and
ideas have been established on a topic, and
what their strengths and weaknesses are.
 the literature review must be defined by a
guiding concept (e.g., your research objective,
the problem or issue you are discussing or
your argumentative thesis)
Literature review…
 Literature review must be defined by a guiding
concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem
or issue you are discussing or your argumentative
thesis)
 Function of literature review

It provides theoretical background

 It enables one to refine research methodology

 It enables one to define your contribution to

knowledge
 It enables one to contextualize your findings
 Helps to avoid unnecessary duplication

 Helps to evaluate promising research methods

Literature review…
 In reviewing literature one should;
 be organized around the research question you are
developing
 synthesize results into a summary of what is and is
not known (highlight gaps in research)
 identify areas of controversy in the literature
 formulate questions that need further research
 compare and contrast different authors' views on an
issue
 group authors who draw similar conclusions
 criticize aspects of methodology
 note areas in which authors are in disagreement
Literature review…
 highlight exemplary studies
 show how your study relates to previous

studies
 show how your study relates to the literature

in general
 conclude by summarizing what the literature

says
Literature review…
 Critical evaluation of literature
 Have you organized your material according to
issues?
 Is there logic to the way you organized the material?
 Does the amount of detail included on an issue
relate to its importance?
 Have you been sufficiently critical of design and
methodological issues?
 Have you indicated when results were conflicting or
inconclusive and discussed possible reasons?
 Have you indicated the relevance of each reference
to your research?
Literature review
 Has your summary of the current literature
contributed to the reader's understanding of
the problems?
 Does the design of your research reflect the

methodological implications of the literature

review?
 What is missing? (Study gap)
Chapter three: Methodology
 This chapter provides the details about the
research methods and techniques used in data
collection and data analysis for the study.
 Research methodology refers to the approach
the researcher takes in carrying out a research
project
 Research methodology is organized under the
following sub-sections; research design,
research site, population, sampling technique,
research instruments, data collection procedures
and data analysis, ethics, validity and reliability
Methodology …
 Research design: A research design is a systematic
plan to study a scientific problem.
 How all of the major parts of the research project

work together to address the research problem.

 The design of a study defines:
 The study type (descriptive, correlational, case study,

experimental designs)
 Sampling design, research questions,

 hypotheses,

 Independent and dependent variables,

 Experimental design, and, if applicable, data

collection methods and a statistical analysis plan.

Research design….
 Research design is the framework that has
been created to seek answers to research
questions.
 the design includes an outline of what the

researcher will do from writing the hypothesis

and its operational implications to the final
analysis of data.
 More explicitly, the design decisions happen

to be in respect of:
Research design…
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
TYPES OF RESERCH DESIGNS
 Descriptive design
 Provides descriptions of the state of affairs as

it exists.
 Experimental design
 In this design the investigator directly

manipulates some factor and holds others

constant.
 The investigator observes effect of indep.

Varbl on dep.varbl;.i.e. effects of ‘x’ on ‘y’

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
 Experimental design (cont…)
 The manipulated variable is known as indp.v

and one we intend to measure its effects is

called dep. v.

 For e.g. You might be testing a new fertilizer:

one farm receives the fertilizer, the other one
not.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
 Correlational design
 Enables the researcher to assess the degree

of r/ship btn two or more variables

 For e.g. you compare the exam perf. of a

group of univ. students who prepare their

own meals everyday and those eating at the
cafeteria
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGS
 Case Study
 A single unit in a study.
 It can be a person, an organization like a

clinic, hospital, university, club, etc.

 Is an intensive description and analysis of a

certain issue/object/unit/situation as a whole

 The design helps in making an in-depth and

multi-faced investigation of the problem.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
 Cross-cultural Design
 Used to compare behvr patterns of diff.

cultures
 With the design you can perceive how various

cultures perceive certain social and eductnl

outcomes
 E.g. you can compare the perf. of students in

English in rural and urban schools and find

out to what extent cultural variations
influence students’ performance.
RESEARCH SITE
 It is where people conduct research.
 Common sites include hospitals, universities,

research institutes, etc.

RESEARCH POPULATION
 A group of individuals, objects or items from
which the samples are taken for
measurements.
 It is important to determine the study pop as

well as the demographic features such as

gender, age and class/status of the
population.
 This is because the greater the diversity and

differences in the pop, the greater the sample

size and reliability
POPULATION SAMPLE
 Population sample
 It is any subset or subgroup of the population
 Or a small part taken from the whole pop for

research purposes
 Qualities of an effective population sample
 Diversity-the greater the diversity and differences,

the higher the applicability of findings to the entire

pop
 Representativeness

If, for example, the study is on the effect of the slum

environment on the basic education, it is important
that the majority of pop come from slum environment.
POPULATION SAMPLE
 Qualities of an effective pop sample
 Accessibility-an affective pop sample is one

accessible to the researcher

 Knowledge-an effective pop sample should

have some ideas of the topic for investigation

 Respondents
 In research, ‘respondents’ refer to those who

will reply to, or respond to the research

instruments
 Other names for ‘respondents’ include

‘informants’ and ‘subjects’

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
 Sampling
 It is the act, process or technique of selecting
a suitable sample or representative part of a
pop.
 Sample size
 It is the exact no. of items selected from a

pop to constitute a sample. The larger the

sample size, the lower the likely error in
generalizing.
SAMPLING DESIGN (SD)
 SD
 is part of the research plan indicating how
cases are to be selected for observation.
 Types of SDs
 Probability sampling
 Non-probability sampling
Probability Sampling (PS)
 It is a sampling type in which every member
in the pop has a probability/chance of being
selected to form a sample.
 In PS, selection is random. PS is divided into:

 Simple random sampling

 Stratified random sampling
 Systematic random sampling
 Cluster random sampling
Simple random sampling
 In this sampling, each member of the target
pop has equal chance of inclusion in the
sample.
 The method is ‘simple’ as no complexities are

involved
Advantages
 Permits generalization of the data obtained
 Provide equal chance for each pop to form a

sample
Simple random sampling
Disadvantages
 Bias in selection is common
 Not the most statistically efficient method of

sampling. Subgroups may not be represented

 Non-response error is high. Some members

selected may have moved to other areas.

Systematic random sampling
 This type is used when a large pop is involved
 The type involves selecting the sample at

regular interval from sampling frame, i.e. every

nth term.
i.e. k=N/n where k=Systematic sampling
interval, N=pop. size, n =Sample size
 E.g. if a sample of 400 elements is to be

selected form the target pop of 2000

elements, a sample is obtained
by:2000/400=5. This means that every fifth
element in the pop is to be selected.
Systematic random sampling
Advantages
 Less tedious and more time saving
 Saves cost compared to simple random

sampling
 Bias is minimized
 Subjects are spread over the pop while in SRS

members close to each other can be picked

 Convenient for a larger pop
Systematic random sampling
Disadvantages
 Less random than simple random sampling
 Data manipulation is possible as the

researcher may reorder or restructure a

dataset leading to decreased data validity
Stratified random sampling
 A pop is div/partitioned into subgroups/pops
(strata) followed by simple random sampling
 Appropriate when interest is on issues related

to age or gender disparities in a pop.

 The sample is selected to ensure certain

subgroups in the pop are represented in a

sample as per their proportion in a pop.
 Pop can be divided into sub-pop, e.g.,

gender, marital status, age, occupation,

religion, etc.
Stratified random sampling
Advantages
 It enables representation of not only overall

pop but subgroup esp. small minority groups

Disadvantages
 If uncarefully stratified, some sub-groups

may be unrepresented leading to bias

Cluster random sampling
 It is used when the pop is dispersed across a
wide geographical area, e.g., country,
regional and provincial pop.
 It allows for the division of pop into clusters.

E.g. a survey of all schools in Tz will require

visiting all regions. But by using cluster
sampling, one can choose 2 districts per each
region for survey
Cluster random sampling
Advantages
 It is cheaper as it selects only certain groups

from the entire pop

Disadvantages
 There is a risk of missing some sub-groups
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 It is a biased sampling procedure as it does
not provide and basis for inclusion of a
member of a pop in a sample.
Types of Non-probability sampling
 Purposive/deliberate/judgement sampling
 Quota sampling
 Snowball sampling
 Convenience sampling
Types of Non-Prob. Sampling
 Purposive sampling
 Also called judgmental sampling because the

decision to include an element/item in a sample

rests of the researcher’s judgement or intuition
 In the method, the researcher purposely targets

a group believed to be suitable for the study.

 For example, in studying the effects of abortion

on learning, the researcher may contact students

who previously had abortion
 The power of ps lies in selecting information rich

cases for in-depth analysis on the relevant issue

Types of Non-prob sampling
 Snowball/chain sampling
 This is a type of purposive sampling
 Begins by asking people to identify specific

kinds of cases.
 It begins with a few people or cases and then

gradually increases the sample size as new

contacts are mentioned by contacts you
started out with
Types of Non-prob. Sampling
 Convenience/accidental Sampling
 Involves selecting respondents primarily

based on the basis of their availability and

willingness to respond (Shaughness, 2000)
 Respondents are people who just happen to

be walking by or show interest in your

research
Types of Non-prob. sampling
 Quota Sampling
 Is a non-prob sampling which consists of two

stages.
 First, quotas are assigned to the population

to ensure that the population cs are captured

in the sample
 Second, after the assignment of quotas,

convenience or judgement sampling is used

by the researcher to choose elements from
the subgroups.
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
 Research instruments
 Are tools for collecting, measure and analyse

data related to your subject.

 Are fact-finding strategies. They are tools for

data collection. They include questionnaires,

interview schedules, observation, focused
group discussion and observation.
Research Instruments
 Questionnaire

 An instrument used mostly in normative

surveys.
 It is a systematically prepared form or

document with a set of questions designed to

elicit responses as insights into the nature of
the problem under study.
 Information can be collected from a large

sample and diverse respondents

 Questions are free from interview bias since

they are in paper format

Questionnaire
 Advantages
 Saves time
 Minimum supervision/training to administer
 Confidentiality is maintained
 Easy and inexpensive distribution
 More accurate responses expected
 Easier to construct
 Confidential information is likely to be given

freely
 Cover a wide area
Questionnaire
 Disadvantages
 Some questions may be left unanswered
 Cannot be used to illiterate people
 Some filled-up questionnaires may not be

returned
 No time to question responses given
 No room to ask the researcher to clarify qns
 Limited choices may force respondents to

select responses which are not their actual

responses
Closed and open-ended
questionnaire
 Closed-ended  Open-ended
 Questions with responses  A question that can not be
to choose from answered with a ‘yes’ or
 Allow a respondent to give ‘no’ response or with a
a specific response static response.
 They are questions which
e.g.
require longer responses
1) is Dodoma the capital city
of Tanzania? 2)On what day e.g.
were you born 1. what do you think about
3. When president, what did this product?
you do (if never was the 2. Why is Africa
president) underdeveloped?
INTERVIEW
 Questions asked orally to seek responses
 There are two types of interviews namely,

structured and unstructured interviews.

i) Structured interviews
 They involve asking respondents similar

questions.
 They are more formal with little room for

creative answers
Structured interview
 Advantages
 Reliability of information gathered is high
since similar questions are asked
 Gives in-depth information based on

researcher’s interest as information is sought

on specific issues
 Saves time since what is answered is what the

researcher asks
 Data collected is quantifiable
Structured interview
 Disadvantages
 Too formal to get some insights since the
responses may be too cautious and give
answers which only impress the researcher
 Rigidity displayed by the researcher can affect

the responses given. The respondent may feel

as if under investigation and is being probed.
 Some points not included in the questions

may be missed out

Unstructured Interviews
 In this instrument, there is neither specific question to
be asked nor pre-determined possible answers are
expected
 The interviews are flexible, more informal and free-

flowing
 Advantages

 Questions are flexible thereby giving room for

respondents to give a lot of information

 Lack of rigidity helps respondents to feel part of the

team
 Useful in studying sensitive topics such as sexuality or

abortion
 Gives in-depth information
Unstructured Interviews
 Disadvantages
 Time consuming since a respondent can
dwell on one issue for a long time
 Difficult to systematize data because of an

overlap in responses or questions

 If not carefully handled, it can get out of

control leading to respondents getting to

emotional
Semi-structured Interview
 These are interviews in which a few questions
are pre-determined, but others are not
Focus Group Discussion
 A group comprised of 6-8 individuals who
share certain characteristics relevant for the
study
 The discussion is carefully planned and

designed to obtain inf. on participants’ beliefs

and perceptions
 Criteria for selecting a FGD

1. A topic for discussion be decided beforehand

2. There is a predetermined list of open-ended

questions
Observation

 It is tool that provides information about

actual behavior
 Direct observation is useful as some behavior

involves habitual routines of which people are

hardly aware
 Forms of observation are:

i) Participant observation
ii) Unstructured observation
iii) Structured observation
i) Participant observation
 The investigator becomes an active
functioning member of the culture under
study
 An investigator participates in any activity

appropriate to the status which is assumed

 Respondents become more comfortable with

the researcher.
Note: It can be time consuming
 ii) Structured and Unstructured
Observation
 Structured  Unstructured
 The observer is an onlooker
 The observer is an  General in terms of what is
onlooker to be observed and
 Specific in terms of recorded
what is to be observed  Flexible, allowing for the
collection of comprehensive
and recorded
and rich data
 This requires the  Helpful in understanding
researcher to be clear bhv patterns in their
on the behavior being physical and social context
observed
Sources of Data
 There are two major sources of data used by
researchers:
i) Primary sources (provide primary data)
 Information gathered directly from respondents

through questionnaire, interviews, FGD, observations

and experimental studies.
 It involves ‘new’ data.

ii) Secondary sources (provide secondary data)

 Data gathered from data already collected by

someone else.
 It involves the collection and analysis of published

material and information from internet sources.

Advantages of Secondary Data
 Available more cheaply that collecting the
same data “from scratch”.
 Can give the researcher access to otherwise-

unavailable organizations, individuals or

locations
 Less-time consuming since they are pre-

processed
Disadvantages of Secondary data
 Researcher is likely to rely on the skills and
propriety of the collector
 Researcher may have little or no direct

knowledge of the processing methods

employed.
i.e. researcher may rarely have access to original
raw data to check the validity of the findings
 The researcher is forced to rely on the skills

and integrity of those who collected and

analysed the data.
Ethical Issues in Data Collection
 Ethics - are moral principles
 Moral principles- are guidelines that people

live by to make sure they are doing the right

thing.
 Ethical issues –they occur when a given

decision, scenario or activity creates conflict

with society’s moral principles.
 Researchers whose subjects are people or

animals must consider professionalism and

pay attention to ethical issues in research.
Ethical Issues in Data Collection
Rules applicable to data collection
 Prior to data collection, seek consent from

respondents
 Ensure that respondent’s privacy is not intruded
 Abide by moral and legal issues since

respondents may have diff. feelings and

sensibilities from the researcher.
 Consent to use names, videos, pictures, etc.

should be sought prior to data collection

 The researcher should maintain confidentiality at

all time
Ethical Issues in Data Collection
Rules applicable to data collection
 In order to carry out a survey or experiment,

there have to be benefits from the study that

outweigh the costs.
-the researcher has to justify beyond any
reasonable doubt the need for data collection
 The researcher must take all reasonable

measures to protect subjects physically and

psychologically.
 The researcher must fully explain the research in

advance and “de-brief” subjects afterwards.

Reliability and Validity in Research
The two terms are different but related.
 Validity

 Extent to which an instrument used in research is

accurate.
 It is a measure of how well an instrument used

measures what it is intended to measure.

 Reliability

 A measure of the extent to which the results from an

instrument used are consistent

 In other words, reliability establishes if the same

instruments used can yield similar results if a

different study is conducted.
Ensuring reliability and validity
 Pilot study/Pre-test
 Prior to actual data collection, a mini study can

be conducted.
 Proper handling of questionnaires, interview

schedules, observation, etc. to avoid disparity

if a different study is done.
 After data collection, a thorough scrutiny of

data should be done prior to analysis and

discussion of the findings to avoid such things
as coding error, recording error, question
errors, etc.
Pilot study (PL)
 Helps test the feasibility of the study techniques to perfect
the questionnaire concepts and wording
 Enables the researcher to find out if the selected questions
are measuring what they are supposed to measure
 Helps cross-checking the clarity of wording to make sure
all questions will be interpreted in the same way by all
respondents
 Helps the researcher to detect what response is provoked
and find out if there is any research bias
 Enables the researcher to monitor the context in which the
data will be collected and the topic areas addressed. The
researcher shouldn’t used pre-test sample in the actual
study
 Data Organization, Analysis and
Presentation
 Data Organization (DO)
 Orderliness in data/putting data in a systematic form
 DO includes identifying (correcting) errors in the data,

coding the data and storing it in the form that is

appropriate.
DO involves the following:
i. Pre-processing-to correct problems in the raw data
ii. Development of a coding system-researcher assigns
codes to likely answers. E.g. 1=yes, 2=no and 0=do not
know
Challenge: treatment of missing data
Soln: Provide special codes why data not included/going
back to the field to fill the missing info.
Data Organization (DO)
iii. Deciding on Data Storage
 After coding, the generated info. has to be stored.

There are two major storage forms namely:

Electronic and non electronic (paper) forms.
iv. Choosing a Statistical Software Package
 After deciding on data storage, a statistical

software package relevant in the analysis has to

be thought about.
 Some computer software: Word processor,

Spreadsheets, Databases, Statistical systems and

Graphical Systems.
 Data Organization, Analysis and
Presentation
 Analysis (ANL)
 Examining the coded data critically and

making inferences
 Involves uncovering underlying structures;

extracting important variables; detecting any

anomalies and testing any underlying
assumptions.
 Data Organization, Analysis and
Presentation
 Data Presentation
 Refers to ways of arranging data to make it

clearly understood.
There are three ways data can be presented
after analysis:
 Using statistical techniques
 Using graphical Techniques
 Using a combination of both
 Summary of Findings, Conclusion
and Recommendations
 Summary of the Main Findings (SF)
 It bases on results from the study
 In ta SF, a researcher should identify the

findings of the study and discuss them briefly

 It is brief, all statements are concise, and

pinpoint to the contributions that the

researcher has made.
 One way to write SF is to use one paragraph

for each idea

 Summary of Findings, Conclusion
and Recommendations
 Conclusion
 Should be very brief about half a page
 Should indicate what the study results

reaffirm
 Should clearly state how the study has

contributed to knowledge
 Summary of Findings, Conclusion
and Recommendations
 Recommendations
 This section often exposes further problems and

introduces more questions

 As a researcher, there is a time limit to the

research project, so it is unlikely that the study

would have solved all the problems associated with
the area of the study.
 The researcher, therefore, is expected to make

some suggestions about how his/her work can be

improved and
 Based on the study findings, point out whether

there are areas that deserve further investigations