OPERATING SYSTEM

Operating System (OS)

• (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware, software

resources, and provides common services for computer programs.
• Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the
system and may also include accounting software for cost allocation of
processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources.
• For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation,
the operating system acts as an intermediary between programs and the
computer hardware,[1][2] although the application code is usually executed
directly by the hardware and frequently makes system calls to an OS
function or is interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on many
devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones and video game
consoles to web servers and supercomputers.
• The dominant general-purpose personal computer operating system is
Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 76.45%. macOS by Apple
Inc. is in second place (17.72%), and the varieties of Linux are collectively in
third place (1.73%). In the mobile sector (including smartphones and
tablets), Android's share is up to 72% in the year 2020.According to third
quarter 2016 data, Android's share on smartphones is dominant with 87.5
percent with a growth rate of 10.3 percent per year, followed by Apple's iOS
with 12.1 percent with per year decrease in market share of 5.2 percent,
while other operating systems amount to just 0.3 percent. Linux distributions
are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors. Other specialized
classes of operating systems (special-purpose operating systems), such as
embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. Security-
focused operating systems also exist. Some operating systems have low
system requirements (e.g. light-weight Linux distribution). Others may have
higher system requirements.
• Some operating systems require installation or may come pre-installed with
purchased computers (OEM-installation), whereas others may run directly
from media (i.e. live CD) or flash memory (i.e. USB stick).
 Types of operating systems
• Single-tasking and multi-tasking
• A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time, while a multi-tasking
operating system allows more than one program to be running concurrently. This is
achieved by time-sharing, where the available processor time is divided between
multiple processes. These processes are each interrupted repeatedly in time slices
by a task-scheduling subsystem of the operating system. Multi-tasking may be
characterized in preemptive and cooperative types. In preemptive multitasking, the
operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs.
Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux—as well as non-Unix-like, such as
AmigaOS—support preemptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is achieved
by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined
manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking; 32-bit
versions of both Windows NT and Win9x used preemptive multi-tasking.
• Single- and multi-user
• Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users but may allow
multiple programs to run in tandem.[8] A multi-user operating system extends the basic
concept of multi-tasking with facilities that identify processes and resources, such as disk
space, belonging to multiple users, and the system permits multiple users to interact with
the system at the same time. Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient
use of the system and may also include accounting software for cost allocation of
processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources to multiple users.
• Distributed
• A distributed operating system manages a group of distinct, networked computers and
makes them appear to be a single computer, as all computations are distributed (divided
amongst the constituent computers).
• Embedded
• Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems.
They are designed to operate on small machines with less autonomy (e.g. PDAs). They are
very compact and extremely efficient by design and are able to operate with a limited
amount of resources. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded
operating systems.
• Real-time
• A real-time operating system is an operating system that guarantees to process
events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be
single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, it uses specialized scheduling
algorithms so that a deterministic nature of behavior is achieved. Such an event-
driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events,
whereas time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.
• Library
• A library operating system is one in which the services that a typical operating
system provides, such as networking, are provided in the form of libraries and
composed with the application and configuration code to construct a unikernel: a
specialized, single address space, machine image that can be deployed to cloud or
embedded environments
 MAC OS
• macOS (formerly "Mac OS X" and later "OS X") is a line of open core graphical operating systems
developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., the latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently shipping
Macintosh computers. macOS is the successor to the original classic Mac OS, which had been Apple's
primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessor, macOS is a UNIX operating system built on
technology that had been developed at NeXT through the second half of the 1980s and up until Apple
purchased the company in early 1997. The operating system was first released in 1999 as Mac OS X Server
1.0, followed in March 2001 by a client version (Mac OS X v10.0 "Cheetah"). Since then, six more distinct
"client" and "server" editions of macOS have been released, until the two were merged in OS X 10.7
"Lion".

• Prior to its merging with macOS, the server edition – macOS Server – was architecturally identical to its
desktop counterpart and usually ran on Apple's line of Macintosh server hardware. macOS Server
included work group management and administration software tools that provide simplified access to
key network services, including a mail transfer agent, a Samba server, an LDAP server, a domain name
server, and others. With Mac OS X v10.7 Lion, all server aspects of Mac OS X Server have been integrated
into the client version and the product re-branded as "OS X" (dropping "Mac" from the name). The
server tools are now offered as an application.
 z/OS UNIX System Services
• First introduced as the OpenEdition upgrade to MVS/ESA
System Product Version 4 Release 3, announced February
1993 with support for POSIX and other standards.z/OS
UNIX System Services is built on top of MVS services and
cannot run independently. While IBM initially introduced
OpenEdition to satisfy FIPS requirements, several z/OS
component now require UNIX services, e.g., TCP/IP.
 Linux
• The Linux kernel originated in 1991, as a project of Linus Torvalds, while a university
student in Finland. He posted information about his project on a newsgroup for
computer students and programmers, and received support and assistance from
volunteers who succeeded in creating a complete and functional kernel.
• Linux is Unix-like, but was developed without any Unix code, unlike BSD and its variants.
Because of its open license model, the Linux kernel code is available for study and
modification, which resulted in its use on a wide range of computing machinery from
supercomputers to smartwatches. Although estimates suggest that Linux is used on
only 1.82% of all "desktop" (or laptop) PCs, it has been widely adopted for use in servers
and embedded systems such as cell phones. Linux has superseded Unix on many
platforms and is used on most supercomputers including the top 385. Many of the same
computers are also on Green500 (but in different order), and Linux runs on the top 10.
Linux is also commonly used on other small energy-efficient computers, such as
smartphones and smartwatches. The Linux kernel is used in some popular distributions,
such as Red Hat, Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint and Google's Android, Chrome OS, and
Chromium OS.
 Microsoft Windows
• Microsoft Windows is a family of proprietary operating systems designed by Microsoft Corporation
and primarily targeted to Intel architecture based computers, with an estimated 88.9 percent total
usage share on Web connected computers.The latest version is Windows 11.
• In 2011, Windows 7 overtook Windows XP as the most common version in use.
• Microsoft Windows was first released in 1985, as an operating environment running on top of MS-
DOS, which was the standard operating system shipped on most Intel architecture personal
computers at the time. In 1995, Windows 95 was released which only used MS-DOS as a bootstrap.
For backwards compatibility, Win9x could run real-mode MS-DOS[39][40] and 16-bit Windows
3.x[ drivers. Windows ME, released in 2000, was the last version in the Win9x family. Later versions
have all been based on the Windows NT kernel. Current client versions of Windows run on IA-32, x86-
64 and ARM microprocessors.[42] In addition Itanium is still supported in older server version
Windows Server 2008 R2. In the past, Windows NT supported additional architectures.
• Server editions of Windows are widely used, however, Windows' usage on servers is not as
widespread as on personal computers as Windows competes against Linux and BSD for server
market share.
• ReactOS is a Windows-alternative operating system, which is being developed on the principles of
Windows – without using any of Microsoft's code.
List of Microsoft Windows
versions
• Windows 1.01 • Windows 3.11 • Windows Vista
• Windows 1.02 • Windows 3.2 • Windows 7
• Windows 1.03 • Windows NT 3.5 • Windows 8
• Windows 1.04 • Windows NT 3.51 • Windows 8.1
• Windows 2.01 • Windows 95 • Windows 10
• Windows 2.03 • Windows NT 4.0 • Windows 11
• Windows 2.1 • Windows 98
• Windows 2.11 • Windows 98 Second Edition
• Windows 3.0 • Windows 2000
• Windows 3.1 • Windows Me
• Windows NT 3.1 • Windows XP
List of Microsoft Windows Server versions
• Windows NT 3.1 • Windows Server 2016
• Windows NT 3.5 • Windows Server 2019
• Windows NT 3.51 • Windows Server 2022
• Windows NT 4.0
• Windows 2000
• Windows Server 2003
• Windows Server 2003 R2
• Windows Server 2008
• Windows Server 2008 R2
• Windows Server 2012
• Windows Server 2012 R2
 MAC OS
• macOS (/ˌmækoʊˈɛs/; previously Mac OS X and later OS X) is a Unix operating
system[9] developed and marketed by Apple Inc. since 2001. It is the primary
operating system for Apple's Mac computers. Within the market of desktop and
laptop computers it is the second most widely used desktop OS, after Microsoft
Windows and ahead of ChromeOS.
• macOS succeeded the classic Mac OS, a Macintosh operating system with nine
releases from 1984 to 1999. During this time, Apple cofounder Steve Jobs had
left Apple and started another company, NeXT, developing the NeXTSTEP
platform that would later be acquired by Apple to form the basis of macOS.
• The first desktop version, Mac OS X 10.0, was released in March 2001, with its
first update, 10.1, arriving later that year. All releases from Mac OS X 10.5
Leopard and after are UNIX 03 certified, with an exception for OS X 10.7 Lion.
Apple's mobile operating system, iOS, has been considered a variant of macOS.
 MAC OS
• A prominent part of macOS's original brand identity was the use of Roman
numeral X, pronounced "ten" as in Mac OS X and also the iPhone X, as well as
code naming each release after species of big cats, or places within California.
Apple shortened the name to "OS X" in 2012 and then changed it to "macOS" in
2016 to align with the branding of Apple's other operating systems, iOS,
watchOS, and tvOS. After sixteen distinct versions of macOS 10, macOS Big Sur
was presented as version 11 in 2020, and macOS Monterey was presented as
version 12 in 2021.

• macOS has supported three major processor architectures, beginning with

PowerPC-based Macs in 1999. In 2006, Apple transitioned to the Intel
architecture with a line of Macs using Intel Core processors. In 2020, Apple
began the Apple silicon transition, using self-designed, 64-bit ARM-based Apple
M1 processors on the latest Macintosh computers.
 HISTORY DEVELOPMENT
• The heritage of what would become macOS had originated at NeXT, a company
founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-
like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, before being launched in 1989.
The kernel of NeXTSTEP is based upon the Mach kernel, which was originally
developed at Carnegie Mellon University, with additional kernel layers and low-level
user space code derived from parts of BSD. Its graphical user interface was built on
top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective-C programming language.
• Throughout the early 1990s, Apple had tried to create a "next-generation" OS to
succeed its classic Mac OS through the Taligent, Copland and Gershwin projects,
but all were eventually abandoned.[16] This led Apple to purchase NeXT in 1996,
allowing NeXTSTEP, then called OPENSTEP, to serve as the basis for Apple's next
generation operating system. This purchase also led to Steve Jobs returning to
Apple as an interim, and then the permanent CEO, shepherding the transformation
of the programmer-friendly OPENSTEP into a system that would be adopted by
Apple's primary market of home users and creative professionals. The project was
first code named "Rhapsody" and then officially named Mac OS X.
 Mac OS X
• Mac OS X was originally presented as the tenth major version of Apple's operating
system for Macintosh computers; until 2020, versions of macOS retained the major
version number "10". The letter "X" in Mac OS X's name refers to the number 10, a
Roman numeral, and Apple has stated that it should be pronounced "ten" in this
context. However, it is also commonly pronounced like the letter "X". Previous
Macintosh operating systems (versions of the classic Mac OS) were named using
Arabic numerals, as with Mac OS 8 and Mac OS 9. As of 2020 and 2021, Apple
reverted to Arabic numeral versioning for successive releases, macOS 11 Big Sur
and macOS 12 Monterey, as they have done for the iPhone 11 and iPhone 12
following the iPhone X.
• The first version of Mac OS X, Mac OS X Server 1.0, was a transitional product,
featuring an interface resembling the classic Mac OS, though it was not compatible
with software designed for the older system. Consumer releases of Mac OS X
included more backward compatibility. Mac OS applications could be rewritten to
run natively via the Carbon API; many could also be run directly through the Classic
Environment with a reduction in performance.
 OS X
• In 2012, with the release of OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion, the name of the system was
shortened from Mac OS X to OS X. That year, Apple removed the head of OS X
development, Scott Forstall, and design was changed towards a more minimal direction.
Apple's new user interface design, using deep color saturation, text-only buttons and a
minimal, 'flat' interface, was debuted with iOS 7 in 2013. With OS X engineers reportedly
working on iOS 7, the version released in 2013, OS X 10.9 Mavericks, was something of
a transitional release, with some of the skeuomorphic design removed, while most of the
general interface of Mavericks remained unchanged. The next version, OS X 10.10
Yosemite, adopted a design similar to iOS 7 but with greater complexity suitable for an
interface controlled with a mouse.
• From 2012 onwards, the system has shifted to an annual release schedule similar to that
of iOS. It also steadily cut the cost of updates from Snow Leopard onwards, before
removing upgrade fees altogether from 2013 onwards.[46] Some journalists and third-
party software developers have suggested that this decision, while allowing more rapid
feature release, meant less opportunity to focus on stability, with no version of OS X
recommendable for users requiring stability and performance above new features.
Apple's 2015 update, OS X 10.11 El Capitan, was announced to focus specifically on
stability and performance improvements.
 macOS
• In 2016, with the release of macOS 10.12 Sierra, the name was changed from OS X to
macOS to align it with the branding of Apple's other primary operating systems: iOS,
watchOS, and tvOS.[49] The Apple File System (APFS) was announced at Apple's
annual Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) in June 2016 as a replacement for
HFS+, which had been criticized as dated.macOS 10.13 High Sierra, released in 2017,
turned on APFS by default for SSDs.
• Its successor, macOS 10.14 Mojave, was released in 2018, adding a dark user
interface option and a dynamic wallpaper setting. It was succeeded by macOS 10.15
Catalina in 2019, which replaces iTunes with separate apps for different types of
media, and introduces the Catalyst system for porting iOS apps.
• In 2020, Apple previewed macOS 11 Big Sur at the WWDC 2020. This was the first
increment in the primary version number of macOS since the release of Mac OS X
Public Beta in 2000; updates to macOS 11 were given 11.x numbers, matching the
version numbering scheme used by Apple's other operating systems. Big Sur brought
major changes to the UI and was the first version to run on the ARM instruction set.
The new numbering system was continued in 2021 with macOS 12 Monterey, and
2022 with macOS 13 Ventura.
 Architecture
• At macOS's core is a POSIX-compliant operating system built on top of the XNU
kernel, with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface.
Apple has released this family of software as a free and open source operating
system named Darwin. On top of Darwin, Apple layered a number of components,
including the Aqua interface and the Finder, to complete the GUI-based operating
system which is macOS.
• With its original introduction as Mac OS X, the system brought a number of new
capabilities to provide a more stable and reliable platform than its predecessor, the
classic Mac OS. For example, pre-emptive multitasking and memory protection
improved the system's ability to run multiple applications simultaneously without
them interrupting or corrupting each other. Many aspects of macOS's architecture
are derived from OPENSTEP, which was designed to be portable, to ease the
transition from one platform to another. For example, NeXTSTEP was ported from
the original 68k-based NeXT workstations to x86 and other architectures before
NeXT was purchased by Apple, and OPENSTEP was later ported to the PowerPC
architecture as part of the Rhapsody project.
 Architecture
• At macOS's core is a POSIX-compliant operating system built on top of the XNU
kernel, with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface.
Apple has released this family of software as a free and open source operating
system named Darwin. On top of Darwin, Apple layered a number of components,
including the Aqua interface and the Finder, to complete the GUI-based operating
system which is macOS.
• With its original introduction as Mac OS X, the system brought a number of new
capabilities to provide a more stable and reliable platform than its predecessor, the
classic Mac OS. For example, pre-emptive multitasking and memory protection
improved the system's ability to run multiple applications simultaneously without
them interrupting or corrupting each other. Many aspects of macOS's architecture
are derived from OPENSTEP, which was designed to be portable, to ease the
transition from one platform to another. For example, NeXTSTEP was ported from
the original 68k-based NeXT workstations to x86 and other architectures before
NeXT was purchased by Apple, and OPENSTEP was later ported to the PowerPC
architecture as part of the Rhapsody project.
 List of macOS versions and the software they run
• 10.0 "Cheetah • 10.11 "El Capitan“
• 10.1 "Puma“ • 10.12 "Sierra“
• 10.2 "Jaguar • 10.13 "High Sierra“
• 10.3 "Panther • 10.14 "Mojave“
• 10.4 "Tiger • 10.15 "Catalina“
• 10.5 "Leopard • 11 "Big Sur“
• 10.6 "Snow Leopard • 12 "Monterey“
• 10.7 "Lion • 13 "Ventura"
• 10.8 "Mountain Lion
• 10.9 "Mavericks
• 10.10 "Yosemite
 Android
• Android is a mobile operating system based on a modified version of the Linux
kernel and other open-source software, designed primarily for touchscreen mobile
devices such as smartphones and tablets. Android is developed by a consortium of
developers known as the Open Handset Alliance and commercially sponsored by
Google. It was unveiled in November 2007, with the first commercial Android
device, the HTC Dream, being launched in September 2008.
• Most versions of Android are proprietary. The core components are taken from the
Android Open Source Project (AOSP), which is free and open-source software
(FOSS) primarily licensed under the Apache License. When Android is installed on
devices, ability to modify the otherwise FOSS software is usually restricted, either
by not providing the corresponding source code or preventing reinstallation through
technical measures, rendering the installed version proprietary. Most Android
devices ship with additional proprietary software pre-installed, most notably Google
Mobile Services (GMS) which includes core apps such as Google Chrome, the
digital distribution platform Google Play, and associated Google Play Services
development platform.
 Android
• Over 70 percent of Android smartphones run Google's ecosystem; some with vendor-
customized user interface and software suite, such as TouchWiz and later One UI by
Samsung, and HTC Sense. Competing Android ecosystems and forks include Fire OS
(developed by Amazon), ColorOS by OPPO, OriginOS by vivo and MagicUI by Honor or
custom ROM such as LineageOS. However, the "Android" name and logo are trademarks of
Google which imposes standards to restrict the use of Android branding by "uncertified"
devices outside their ecosystem.
• The source code has been used to develop variants of Android on a range of other electronics,
such as game consoles, digital cameras, portable media players, PCs, each with a specialized
user interface. Some well known derivatives include Android TV for televisions and Wear OS
for wearables, both developed by Google. Software packages on Android, which use the APK
format, are generally distributed through proprietary application stores like Google Play Store,
Amazon Appstore (including for Windows 11), Samsung Galaxy Store, Huawei AppGallery,
Cafe Bazaar, and GetJar, or open source platforms like Aptoide or F-Droid.
• Android has been the best-selling OS worldwide on smartphones since 2011 and on tablets
since 2013. As of May 2021, it has over three billion monthly active users, the largest installed
base of any operating system,[9] and as of January 2021, the Google Play Store features over
3 million apps.[10] Android 13, released on August 15, 2022, is the latest version.