ITC3211:

INTRODUCTION TO
INFORMATION SYSTEMS I
Chapter 3

Aisha U. Suleiman
Department of Computer Science
Northwest University, Kano
HARDWARE
Computer hardware should be selected to
meet specific user and business
requirements. These requirements can
evolve and change over time.
Input devices, a central processing unit,
internal and external memory and output
devices.
CPU
The central processing unit (CPU) and
memory cooperate to execute data
processing.
The CPU has three main components: the
arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), the control
unit, and the register areas.
Instructions are executed in a two-phase
process called a machine cycle that
Includes the instruction phase and the
execution phase.
CPU
Computer system processing speed is
affected by clock speed and bus width
As the clock speed of the CPU increases,
heat is generated that can corrupt the data
and instructions the computer is trying to
process.
Primary Storage (Memory)
Primary storage, or memory, provides
working storage for program instructions
and data to be processed and provides them
to the CPU.
A common form of memory is random
access memory (RAM).
RAM comes in many different varieties
including dynamic RAM (DRAM),
synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), Double
Data Rate SDRAM, and DDR2 SDRAM
Read-only memory (ROM) is nonvolatile
and contains permanent program
instructions for execution by the CPU.
Other nonvolatile memory types include
programmable read-only memory
(PROM), erasable programmable read-
only memory (EPROM), electrically
erasable PROM, and flash memory
The use of cache memory, a type of high-
speed memory that a processor can access
more rapidly than main memory, helps to
ease memory performance.
Cache memory is available in three forms:
L1, L2 and L3.
Memory capacity contributes to the
effectiveness of a CBIS. The specific
applications of a CBIS determine the amount
of memory required for a computer system.
Secondary Storage
Computer systems can store larger amounts of data
and instructions in secondary storage, which is less
volatile and has greater capacity than memory.
The main characteristics of secondary storage
media and devices include access method,
capacity, portability, and cost.
Storage media can implement either sequential
access or direct access.
E.g. magnetic tape, magnetic disk, virtual tape,
optical disc, digital video disc (DVD), and
holographic versatile disc (HVD)
Input and Output
Some organizations have very specific
needs for output and input, requiring
devices that perform specific functions.
The speed and functions of input and
output devices should be balanced with
their cost, control, and complexity.
Nature of Data
Human-Readable Data and Machine-
Readable Data.
Usually, people begin the input process
by organizing human-readable data and
transforming it into machine-readable
data.
Data Entry and Input
Getting data into the computer system is a
two-stage process.
First, the human-readable data is
converted into a machine-readable form
through data entry.
The second stage involves transferring the
machine-readable data into the system.
This is data input.
Source Data Automation
This involves capturing and editing data
where it is originally created and in a
form that can be directly input to a
computer, thus ensuring accuracy and
timeliness.
QUIZ
 1. Organizations typically make a one-time investment in the computer
hardware necessary to meet their needs with little need for future changes
and upgrades. True or False?
 2. The computer hardware that most nonprofit organizations choose is
virtually identical. True or False?
 3. The overriding consideration for a business making hardware decisions
should be how the hardware meets specific________ and ________
requirements.
 4. Which represents a larger amount of data—a terabyte or a
 gigabyte?
 5. Which of the following components performs mathematical
 calculations and makes logical comparisons?
 a. control unit
 b. register
 c. ALU
 d. main memory
Common input devices include a
keyboard, a mouse, speech recognition,
digital cameras, terminals, scanning
devices, optical data readers, magnetic ink
character recognition devices, magnetic
stripe cards, point-of-sale devices,
automated teller machines, pen input
devices, touch-sensitive screens, bar-code
scanners, and Radio Frequency
Identification tags
Output Devices
Display monitor quality is determined by
size, color, and resolution. Liquid crystal
display and organic light-emitting diode
technology is enabling improvements in
the resolution and size of computer
monitors. Other output devices include
printers, plotters, and digital audio
players.
E-books and multiple-function printers
are common forms of special-purpose
input/output devices.
Computer System Types

Computers can be classified as either

special purpose or general purpose
General-purpose computer systems can
be divided into two major groups: systems
used by one user at a time and systems
used by multiple concurrent users.
Computer systems can range from small
handheld computers to massive
supercomputers that fill an entire room
Handheld Computers: small in size,
variety of software and communications
capabilities. E.g. Palm Pilot, smartphone.
Portable Computers: carried easily—
from pocket or handheld computers to
laptops, to notebooks, to subnotebooks, to
tablet computers. E.g. tablet PCs.
Thin Client: low-cost, centrally managed
computer with no extra drives
Desktop Computers: small, inexpensive
single-user computer systems that are
highly versatile
Workstations: more powerful than
personal computers but still small enough
to fit on a desktop. Used to perform heavy
mathematical computing, computer-aided
design (CAD), and other applications
requiring a high-end processor.
Servers: a computer used by many users
to perform a specific task, such as running
network or Internet applications. E.g. web
server, enterprise server, file server,
transaction server.
Server Farm is room where authorized
support personnel can more easily manage
and maintain a large number of servers.
Mainframe Computers: large, powerful
computer shared by dozens or even
hundreds of concurrent users connected to
the machine over a network. Must reside
in a data center with special heating,
ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
equipment
Supercomputers: fastest processing
speed and highest performance. They are
special-purpose machines.
SOFTWARE
Defined as a series of detailed instructions
that control the operation of a computer
system.
There are two major categories: Systems
Software and Applications software.
Systems Software

Systems software manages and controls

the operation of the computer system as it
performs tasks on behalf of the user.
three basic categories: operating systems,
middleware and utility programs.
Operating Systems (OS)
interacts with the hardware of the
computer by monitoring and sending
instructions to mange and direct the
computer’s resources
The basic functions of the operating
system include: allocating and managing
system resources, scheduling the use of
resources and monitoring the activities of
the computer system.
Operating systems can control one or
more computers, or they can allow
multiple users to interact with one
computer
Recent OSs
Personal Operating Systems
Workgroup Operating Systems
Enterprise Operating Systems
Embedded Operating Systems
Utility Programs
help to perform maintenance or correct
problems with a computer system.
Hardware Utilitites
Security Utilities
File-Compression Utilities
Spam and Pop-Up Blocker utilities
Network and Internet Utilities
Server and mainframe utilities
Middleware
software that allows different systems to
communicate and exchange data.
Middleware can also be used as an
interface between the Internet and older
legacy systems
The use of middleware to connect
disparate systems has evolved into an
approach for developing software and
systems called SOA
Application Software
apply the power of the computer to give
people, workgroups, and the entire
enterprise the ability to solve problems
and perform specific tasks.
The application programs interact with
systems software, and the systems
software then directs the computer
hardware to perform the necessary tasks
Proprietary software and off-the-shelf software
are important types of application software.
Personal Application Software e.g. MS Word
Workgroup Application Software e.g. e-mail
Enterprise Application Software: ERP software
Application Software for Information, Decision
Support, and Specialized Purposes
SOFTWARE ISSUES AND TRENDS

A software bug is a defect in a computer

program that keeps it from performing as
it is designed to perform. Some software
bugs are obvious and cause the program
to terminate unexpectedly. Other bugs are
subtler and allow errors to creep into your
work.
Register all software so that you receive bug alerts,
fixes, and patches.
Check the manual or read-me files for solutions to
known problems.
Access the support area of the manufacturer’s Web
site for patches.
Install the latest software updates.
Before reporting a bug, make sure that you can re-
create the circumstances under which it occurs.
After you can re-create the bug, call the
manufacturer’s tech support line.
Avoid buying the latest release of software for several
months or a year until the software bugs have been
discovered and removed.
Copyrights and Licenses

Most software products are protected by law

using copyright or licensing provisions.
Some software now requires that you
register or activate it before it can be fully
used.
When people purchase software, they don’t
actually own the software, but rather are
licensed to use the software on a computer
Single-user, multi-user, concurrent-user and
site licenses.
Open-Source Software

Open-source software is freely available

to anyone in a form that can be easily
modified.
Why would an organization run its
business using software that’s free?
using open-source software does have
some disadvantages
Shareware, Freeware, and Public Domain Software

Many software users are doing what they

can to minimize software costs. Some are
turning to shareware and freeware—
software that is very inexpensive or free,
usually for use in personal computers, but
whose source code cannot be modified.
E.g. StarOffice, Picasa
DATABASE SYSTEM
A database is an organized collection of data.
Provides managers and decision makers with
timely, accurate, and relevant information based
on data.
Provides an essential foundation for an
organization’s information and decision support
system.
Because data is so critical to an organization’s
success, many firms develop databases to help
them access data more efficiently and use it more
effectively. This typically requires a well-
designed database management system and a
knowledgeable database administrator
Database Management System (DBMS)

a group of programs that manipulate the

database and provide an interface between the
database and its users and other application
programs.
provides a single point of management and
control over data resources, which can be
critical to maintaining the integrity and security
of the data.
A database, a DBMS, and the application
programs that use the data make up a database
environment.
Database Administrator (DBA)
a skilled and trained IS professional who
directs all activities related to an
organization’s database, including
providing security from intruders.
Database Characteristics
designed to store all data relevant to the
business and provide quick access and
easy modification.
When building a database, an organization
must carefully consider these questions:
• Content?
• Access?
• Logical structure?
• Physical organization?
Data Modeling

Building a database requires two different types

of designs: a logical design and a physical
design.
Planned Data Redundancy improves the system
performance so that user reports or queries can
be created more quickly.
A data model is a diagram of entities and their
relationships.
Data modeling involves understanding a specific
business problem and analyzing the data and
information needed to deliver a solution.
Enterprise data modeling is an approach
that starts by investigating the general data
and information needs of the organization
at the strategic level, and then examines
more specific data and information needs
for the various functional areas and
departments within the organization.
An entity-relationship diagram is an
example of such a data model.
The Relational Database Model

alldata elements are placed in two-

dimensional tables, called relations, which are
the logical equivalent of files.
The tables in relational databases organize
data in rows (record) and columns (field),
simplifying data access and manipulation.
The allowable values for an attribute are
called the domain
Basic data manipulations include selecting,
projecting, and joining
Data Cleanup

The database must be properly designed.

The purpose of data cleanup is to
develop data with the characteristics of
valuable data (accurate, complete,
economical, flexible, reliable, relevant,
simple, timely, verifiable, accessible, and
secure.
Selecting a Database Management System

Important characteristics of databases

include the following:
• Database size.
• Database cost.
• Concurrent users.
• Performance.
• Integration.
• Vendor.
Using Databases with Other Software or the Internet

A DBMS can act as a front-end

application or a back-end application.
A large percentage of corporate databases
are accessed over the Internet through a
standard Web browser.
Developing a seamless integration of
traditional databases with the Internet is
often called a semantic Web
Data Warehouses, Data Marts, and Data Mining

Raw data stored in a variety of locations

and formats.
initially captured, stored, and managed by
transaction processing systems that are
designed to support the day-to-day
operations of the organization.
The data can be used to support decision
making using data warehouses, data
marts, and data mining
Data Warehouses

database that holds business information

from many sources in the enterprise,
covering all aspects of the company’s
processes, products, and customers.
allow managers to drill down to get more
detail or roll up to take detailed data and
generate aggregate or summary reports.
designed specifically to support
management decision making, not to meet
the needs of TPS.
Data Marts

Data marts bring the data warehouse

concept to small and medium-sized
businesses and to departments within
larger companies.
data marts contain a subset of the data for
a single aspect of a company’s busines
Data marts are most useful for smaller
groups who want to access detailed data
Data Mining

involves the automated discovery of

patterns and relationships in a data
warehouse.
objective is to extract patterns, trends, and
rules from data warehouses to evaluate
(i.e., predict or score) proposed business
strategies, which will improve
competitiveness, increase profits, and
transform business processes.
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Telecommunications refers to the
electronic transmission of signals for
communications, by means such as
telephone, radio, and television
The general model of telecommunications
consists of a sending unit, a signal, a
telecommunications device, a medium,
another telecommunications device, the
receiving device.
Telecommunications protocol
set of rules that governs the exchange of
information over a communications medium
whose goal is to ensure fast, efficient, error-
free communications and to enable hardware,
software, and equipment manufacturers and
service providers to build products that
interoperate effectively.
IEEE, ITU.
Communications between two people can
occur synchronously or asynchronously.
Telecommunication Channels
Telecommunications channels can be
classified as simplex e.g. doorbell, half-
duplex e.g. , or full-duplex.
Telecommunications channel bandwidth
refers to the rate at which data is
exchanged, usually measured in bits per
second (bps)
Telecommunications Media

evaluated according to characteristics

such as cost, capacity, and speed.
Transmission media can be divided into
two broad categories: guided transmission
media, and wireless.
Guided Transmission Media Types

These are transmission media in which

telecommunications signals are guided
along a solid medium.
Twisted Pair Wires, Coaxial Cable, Fiber-
Optic Cables, and Broadband over Power
Lines.
Wireless Communications Options

These are transmission media in which

the telecommunications signal is
broadcast over airwaves as a form of
electromagnetic radiation.
Radio Frequency Range, Microwave-
Terrestrial and Satellite Frequency Range
and Infrared Frequency Range.
Short Range Wireless Options: Near Field
Communications, Bluetooth, Ultra
Wideband, Infrared Transmission, and
Zigbee.
Medium Range Wireless Options: Wi-Fi
Wide Area Wireless Network Options:
Satellite And Terrestrial Microwave
Transmission, Wireless Mesh, 3G, 4G,
and WiMAX.
NETWORKS AND DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING

Ifa company uses networks effectively, it

can grow into an agile, powerful, and
creative organization, giving it a long-term
competitive advantage
Depending on the physical distance
between nodes on a network and the
communications and services it provides,
networks can be classified as personal area,
local area, metropolitan area, or wide area
Basic Processing Alternatives
When an organization needs to use two or
more computer systems, it can implement
one of three basic processing alternatives:
centralized, decentralized, or distributed.
Telecommunications Hardware and Software

 Hardware includes modems, multiplexers, front-

end processors, private branch exchanges,
switches, bridges, routers, and gateways.
 Software includes NOS e.g. Novell NetWare,
Windows 2000, Windows 2003, and Windows
2008 .
 With network management software, a manager
on a networked personal computer can monitor
the use of individual computers and shared
hardware (such as printers), scan for viruses, and
ensure compliance with software licenses.
Securing Data Transmission and Wireless Networks

Encryption.
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) and Wi-Fi
Protected Access (WPA).
Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a private
network that uses a public network (usually
the Internet) to connect multiple remote
locations. VPNs support secure, encrypted
connections between a company’s private
network and remote users through a third-
party service provider.
The wide range of telecommunications and network
applications includes cellular phone services, digital
subscriber line (DSL), VoIP, linking personal
computer to mainframes, voice mail, reverse 911
service, voice-to-text services, home and small
business networks, electronic document distribution,
call centers, telecommuting, videoconferencing,
electronic data interchange, public network services,
electronic funds transfer, distance learning, shared
workspaces, unified communications, global
positioning system applications, and specialized
systems and services.