A Short Course on

Scientific Writing

NPC 213
Lecture 3
 2- Types of academic writing

The four main types of academic writing are:

(A) Descriptive (B) analytical (C) persuasive and (D)
critical Each of these types of writing has specific language features and purposes.
In many academic texts you will need to use more than one type.
For example, in an empirical thesis:
you will use critical writing in the literature review to show where there is a gap or opportunity
in the existing research
the methods section will be mostly descriptive to summarize the methods used to collect and
analyze information
the results section will be mostly descriptive and analytical as you report on the data you
collected
the discussion section is more analytical, as you relate your findings back to your research
questions, and also persuasive, as you propose your interpretations of the findings.
(A) Descriptive

The simplest type of academic writing is descriptive. Its purpose is to provide

facts or information.
An example would be a summary of an article or a report of the results of an
experiment.
The kinds of instructions for a purely descriptive assignment include: 'identify',
'report', 'record', 'summarize' and 'define'.

(B) Analytical

It’s rare for a university-level text to be purely descriptive. Most academic

writing is also analytical. Analytical writing includes descriptive writing, but also
requires you to re-organize the facts and information you describe into
categories, groups, parts, types or relationships.
Sometimes, these categories or relationships are already part of the discipline, while in other
cases you will create them specifically for your text.
If you’re comparing two theories, you might break your comparison into several parts,
for example: how each theory deals with social context, how each theory deals with language
learning, and how each theory can be used in practice.
The kinds of instructions for an analytical assignment include: 'analyze', 'compare', 'contrast',
'relate', and 'examine'.

To make your writing more analytical:

o spend plenty of time planning.
o Brainstorm the facts and ideas, and try different ways of grouping them, according to
patterns, parts, similarities and differences.
o You could use colour-coding, flow charts, tree diagrams or tables.
o create a name for the relationships and categories you find. For example, advantages and
disadvantages.
o build each section and paragraph around one of the analytical categories.
o make the structure of your paper clear to your reader, by using topic sentences and a clear
introduction.
 (C) Persuasive
In most academic writing, you are required to go at least one step further than analytical
writing, to persuasive writing. Persuasive writing has all the features of analytical writing (that
is, information plus re-organising the information), with the addition of your own point of
view. Most essays are persuasive, and there is a persuasive element in at least the discussion
and conclusion of a research article.
Points of view in academic writing can include:
 an argument, recommendation, interpretation of findings or evaluation of the work of
others.

In persuasive writing, each claim you make needs to be supported by some evidence, for
example a reference to research findings or published sources.

The kinds of instructions for a persuasive assignment include:

'argue', 'evaluate', 'discuss', and 'take a position'.
To help reach your own point of view on the facts or ideas:
 read some other researchers' points of view on the topic. Who do you feel is the most
convincing?
 look for patterns in the data or references. Where is the evidence strongest?
 list several different interpretations. What are the real-life implications of each one? Which
ones are likely to be most useful or beneficial? Which ones have some problems?
 discuss the facts and ideas with someone else. Do you agree with their point of view?

To develop your argument:

 list the different reasons for your point of view
 think about the different types and sources of evidence which you can use to support your
point of view
 consider different ways that your point of view is similar to, and different from, the points of
view of other researchers
 look for various ways to break your point of view into parts. For example, cost effectiveness,
environmental sustainability, scope of real-world application.
To present your argument, make sure:
 your text develops a coherent argument where all the individual claims work together to
support your overall point of view
 your reasoning for each claim is clear to the reader
 your assumptions are valid
 you have evidence for every claim you make
 you use evidence that is convincing and directly relevant.

(D) Critical

Critical writing is common for research, postgraduate and advanced

undergraduate writing. It has all the features of persuasive writing, with the
added feature of at least one other point of view. While persuasive writing
requires you to have your own point of view on an issue or topic, critical writing
requires you to consider at least two points of view, including your own.
For example, you may explain a researcher's interpretation or argument and then evaluate the
merits of the argument, or give your own alternative interpretation.

Examples of critical writing assignments include a critique of a journal article, or a literature

review that identifies the strengths and weaknesses of existing research.
The kinds of instructions for critical writing include: 'critique', 'debate', 'disagree' and
'evaluate'.
You need to:
 accurately summarize all or part of the work. This could include identifying the main
interpretations, assumptions or methodology.
 have an opinion about the work. Appropriate types of opinion could include pointing out
some problems with it, proposing an alternative approach that would be better, and/or
defending the work against the critiques of others.
 provide evidence for your point of view. Depending on the specific assignment and the
discipline, different types of evidence may be appropriate, such as logical reasoning,
reference to authoritative sources and/or research data.
Critical writing requires strong writing skills:
 You need to thoroughly understand the topic and the issues.
 You need to develop an essay structure and paragraph structure that
allows you to analyze different interpretations and develop your own
argument, supported by evidence.
 3- Planning your writing

There are two main approaches to organizing and analyzing information for academic
writing.

The planning approach:

- spend a lot of time on different types of planning before you begin writing.
- Only start writing when you know what you will write in each paragraph.

The drafting approach:

- start writing early, while you are still developing your ideas.
Write many drafts and gradually re-organize your text until your ideas are clear and your
paragraphs are well structured.

Both of these approaches can be successful. However, if your writing needs to be more
logical, clear or analytical, focus more on your planning.
Creating a good plan is a very positive early step towards writing a good assignment.
 Know what’s expected
While some types of written work are the same in many disciplines, such as essays, there are
also some kinds that only belong to a particular discipline. Sometimes even in the same
discipline area, different lecturers will have different expectations about a particular type of
assignment.

It’s therefore important you understand exactly what type of assignment you’re expected to
write.
For example, it could be an essay, report, case study, reflection or critical review.

You can find out what is expected by looking at key sources of information including:
 written assignment instructions
grade descriptors, rubrics or marking guides. These list the parts of the assignment, how many
marks each part is worth, and/or list the qualities in the assignment that will achieve certain
grades.
 advice from your lecturer or tutor
 the unit of study outline
 discussion with other students
 general assignment guidelines prepared by some schools, departments or faculties
 model assignments
Some lecturers, departments or schools keep copies of good assignments done by previous
students, as models of the right style and structure
 the resources of the Learning Hub (Academic Language and Learning).
 Make a task list

You should identify all the things you need to do to write your paper. This could include:
 a library database search and catalogue search to find relevant journal articles or books
 reading and note-taking
 Brainstorming
 analyzing data
 planning the structure of your assignment
 Drafting
 Discussion
 editing and proofreading.
Estimate the time you need for each task and make a realistic plan based on how you work.
Some people spend longer reading and analyzing before they start writing, while others start
writing earlier and write several drafts.
Find out ways to manage your time.

Early planning
Initially capture as many ideas as possible, without worrying about structure. For example:
• carefully read and think about the assignment or task, and its purpose
• brainstorm lists of key words and topics, to give direction to your reading and research
• draw mindmaps, diagrams and flowcharts
• discuss your ideas with someone else
• list all the readings you could use
• read the abstracts for the relevant sources and make notes on how each article could be
useful
for a large task like a thesis or dissertation, use EndNote, or similar software, to save your
references and notes.
After this initial planning, you can start working out the structure of your assignment.