Chapter 2

Network Models

2.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy Tasks must be done in order given in hierarchy
Services : each layer at the sending site uses the services of the
layer below it.

2.2
 Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.3
 Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

•Layer: A grouping of related tasks involving the transfer of information .Each

layer addresses an essential networking tasks

2.4
 2-1 Internet layers

•Within a single machine, each layer use services provided by

layer below it and provides services for layer above it .
• Ex. Layer 3 provides services to layer 4 and uses services
provided by layer 2.
•Peer-to-peer process : The processes on each machine that
communicate at a given layer are called peer –to-peer processes
•Between machines layer x communicates with layer x on
another machine by protocols.
•Communication between machines is peer-to-peer processing
using the protocols appropriate to a given layer.
•Interfaces : Between each pair of adjacent layers . It defines
what information and services a layer must provide for layer
above it

2.5
 2-1 Internet layers

•Network support layer :

Deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to
another such as :electrical specifications , physical connections,
physical addressing, transport timing and reliability. Includes
Layers 1, 2 and 3
•User support layer: Application layer, presentation ,session
Layers 5,6 and 7
•Layer 4(transport layer) links the two subgroups to insure that
what the lower layers have transmitted is in form the upper
layer can use

2.6
 Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.7
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation

2.8
 Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

2.9
 2-1 Internet layers

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five

layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and
application.

Layer: A grouping of related tasks involving the transfer of information .Each

2.10 layer addresses an essential networking tasks
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
At sender:
•at each layer, a header can added to the data unit.
•At layer 2 a trailer is added as well .
•When formatted data unit passes through physical layer it is changed into an
electromagnetic signal and transported along physical link.
Encapsulation:
A packet (header and data ) at level 5 is encapsulated in a packet in level 4, and
so on.
The data portion of packet at level N-1 carries the whole packet (data and
header/trailer) from level N.
At destination:
•A data then move back up through the layer
•a headers and trailers attached to data at the corresponding layer are removed
(decapsulated) and action appropriate to that layer are taken.
(unwrapped/decapsulated)
At layer 5 the message is again in form appropriate to the application and is
made available to user.

2.11
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

2.12
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

2.13
 1. Physical layer

Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

2.14
 Figure 2.5 Physical layer

2.15
 Duties Of physical Layer
Physical characteristic of interfaces and media:
It defines the characteristic of the interface between devices and
media. It also define the type of transmission media

Representation of bits:
The bit stream must be encoded into signals. It defines the type of
representation ( how 0, 1 are changed to signal).

Data rate:
It defines the number of bits sent per second and also the duration
of bits.

Synchronization of bits
The sender and receiver must be use the same bit rate also the
receiver clock must be synchronized
2.16
 Duties Of physical Layer
Line configuration
Physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media ( point-to point or multipoint)

Physical topology:
•How devices connected to make a network
•Devices can connected by using Star, mesh , bus, ring or
hybrid topology

Transmission mode:
•It defines the direction of transmission between two devices
(simplex, half-duplex, or full duplex)

2.17
 2. Data Link Layer( hop to hop delivery)

Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

2.18
 Figure 2.6 Data link layer

2.19
 Duties Of Data Link Layer
Framing:
Divide the stream of bits received from network layer into data
units called frames

Physical addressing:
•It adds a header to the frame to define the sender and receiver of
the frame.
•If the frame for a system outside the sender’s network the
receiver address: is the address of the connecting device that
connects the network to next one (Router/switch).

Flow control:
It imposes a flow control mechanism , if the data rate at the
receiver is less than produced by sender the data link layer
imposes a flow control to avoid overwhelming the receiver
2.20
 Duties Of Data Link Layer
Error control:
•Add mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames.
•Prevent also duplication of frames.
•Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the
end of frame.

Access control:
•When two or more devices than one devices are connected to the
same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine
which device has control over the link at given time.

2.21
 Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

2.22
 Physical address

• known also as the MAC or link address

• Is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN
• It is included in the frame used by data link layer (Header)
• Ethernet uses 6-bytes (48-bits) physical address that
imprinted on the NIC

2.23
 Physical address

Example
A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with
physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link. At
the data link level this frame contains physical addresses in
the header. These are the only addresses needed. The rest of
the header contains other information needed at this level. The
trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error detection

2.24
 Physical address

2.25
 3. Network Layer( hop to hop delivery)

Note
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of
individual packets from the source host to the destination
host across multiple network.
• If two system are connected to the same link (network),
no need for this layer.

2.26
 Figure 2.8 Network layer

2.27
 Duties Of Network Layer

Logical addressing
•In contrast to physical addressing implemented by data link layer
handling the addressing problem locally. Net work layer adds
unique identifier ( IP or logical address) to the packet.
•These unique identifier( as tel. no, each tel. has unique number )
enable special devices called router to make sure the packet get to
correct system.
Routing:
provide the routing mechanism for the router which route the
packet to their final destination.
Routers : devices used when independent networks are connected
to create an internetworking ( network of networks)

2.28
 Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

2.29
 Logical address (IP)

• IP addresses are necessary for universal communications that are

independent of physical network.
• No two host address on the internet can have the same IP address
• IP addresses 32-bit address that uniquley define a host
connected to the Internet

Logical address (IP) The physical addresses will change from hop
to hop, but the logical addresses remain the same.

2.30
 Example2:

The following figure shows a part of an internet with two

routers connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to only
one link and therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each
router, however, is connected to three networks (only two are
shown in the figure). So each router has three pairs of
addresses, one for each connection.

2.31
 Example2:

2.32
 3. Transport Layer(process to process delivery)

Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

2.33
 Figure 2.10 Transport layer

2.34
 Duties Of transport Layer
Port addressing (Service-point addressing)
•Computer often run several process ( running programs) at the
same time, so the process to process delivery means delivery from
a specific process on a computer to specific process to the other.
•The transport layer header must include Port address
•Port address: 16-bit addresses represented by decimal number
range from 0-65535 to choose among multiple processes on the
destination host
•Destination port No is needed for delivery
•Source port No is needed for replay.

2.35
 IP (logical address )and port address play different roles
in selecting the final destination
IP: defines the host among the different hosts in the world
After host is selected , the port address defines one of the
processes on this particular host.

2.36
 Duties Of transport Layer

2. Segmentation and reassembly

A message is divided into small pieces (Segment), each segment
containing sequence number. These number enable the transport
layer to reassemble the message correctly at destination and to
identify and replace segment that were lost in transmission.

3.Flow control:
Like the data link layer, transport layer responsible for flow
control. Flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather
than across a single link.

2.37
 Duties Of transport Layer

4. Error control
•Error control at this layer is performed process-to-process
rather than across a single link
•The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire
message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error
(damage, loss or duplicated).
•Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission

2.38
 Duties Of transport Layer

5. Connection control
The transport layer can be either connection less or
connection oriented
1. Connection oriented
• Makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine first before delivering the packers.
• When the connection established a sequence of packets from
source to the destination can be sent one after another on the same
path and in sequential order.
•When all packets of message have been delivered, the connection
is terminated
This makes the sending transport layer ensure that the message
arrives at the receiving transport layer without error
( damage, loss or duplication
2.39
 Duties Of transport Layer

2. Connection Less ( as Internet)

•It sends the data, but does not establish and verify a connection
between hosts before sending data.
•Treats each packet independently, the packets in a message
may or may not travel the same path to their destination.

2.40
 Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer;

the transport layer gets the message to the correct processes
on that computer

2.41
 Example
The following figure shows two computers
communicating via the Internet. The sending computer
is running three processes at this time with port
addresses a, b, and c. The receiving computer is running
two processes at this time with port addresses j and k.
Process a in the sending computer needs to communicate
with process j in the receiving computer.
Note that although physical addresses change from hop
to hop, logical and port addresses remain the same from
the source to destination.

2.42
2.43
 ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:
physical , logical , port and Specific addresses :

examples:
•e-mail addresses ( Lhajr@yahoo.com) to define the recipient of an e-mail
•URL addresses ( www.ksu.com) to find a document on the world wide web
The addresses get changed to the corresponding port and logical addresses by the
sending computer

2.44
 5. Session Layer

Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

2.45
Figure 2.12 Session layer

2.46
 Duties Of Session Layer

1. Dialog control:
Allows two systems to enter into dialog. It allows communication
between two processes in either half or full duplex.

2. Synchronization (Recovery)
Allow a process to add check points (Synchronization point)
into a stream of data . So that if a failure of some sort occurs
between checkpoints, the layer can retransmit all data since the
last checkpoint.

2.47
 6. Presentation Layer

Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

2.48
 Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

2.49
 Duties Of Presentation Layer

1.Translation
At the sender it changes the information from its sender –
dependent format into common format. At receiving, changes
the common format into its receiver-dependent format

2. Encryption-Decryption
To ensure privacy and security

3. Compression
Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information. It is important in the transmission of multimedia
such as audio or video

2.50
 7 . Application Layer

Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

2.51
 Figure 2.14 Application layer

2.52
 Application Layer

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the

user such as
Mail services
File transfer and access
Remote log-in Accessing the web (WWW)

•Telnet: A service that enables users on the internet to log onto

remote systems from their own host system.
•HTTP: Hyper text transfer protocol used for network file
transfers in WWW environment
•SMTP: Simple mail transfer protocol used to send electronic mail
on the internet.

2.53
 OSI model

2.54
 Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

2.55
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. However, when TCP/IP is
compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol
suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.56
 Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.57
 Example 2.2

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

2.58