NETWORK MODELS

LAYERS IN THE OSI and TCP/IP MODEL

 Services provided by the Physical layer
to the upper layers •
• The physical layer is concerned with the following:
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and media: The
physical layer
defines the characteristics of the interface between
devices and the transmission media, including its type.
• Representation of the bits: the physical layer data consist
of a stream of bits without any interpretation. To be
transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals –electrical
or optical the type of encoding.
• Data rate: The physical layer defines the transmission
rate, the number of bits sent each second.
 Services provided by the Physical layer to
the upper layers

• Line configuration: the physical layer is concerned with the

connection of devices to the medium.
• Physical topology; here it defines how devices are connected to make
a network e.g. mesh h or star topology
• Transmission Mode; it also defines the direction of transmission
between two devices e.g. simplex, duplex, half duplex
• Synchronization of bit; the sender and receiver not only must use the
same bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level;
 Services provided by the Data Link layer to
the upper layers
• Framing; the data link layer divides the stream of bits received from
the network layer into manageable data units called frames
• Physical addressing; if frames are to be distributed to different
systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the
frame to define the sender and or the receiver of the frame
• Flow control; if the rate at which the data are absorbed by the
receiver is less than the rate at which data are produced in the
sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
prevent this.
Services provided by the Data Link layer
to the upper layers
• Error control; the data link layer adds reliability to the physical
layer by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or
lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate
frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added
to the end of the frame
• Access control; when two or more devices are connected to the
same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine
which device has control over the link at any given time
 NETWORK LAYER

• The Network layer is responsible for the source of a packet possible

across multiple networks.
• If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no
need for a network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to
different networks, there is often a need for the network layer to
accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
 Services provided by the Network Layer to
the Upper layers

• Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data

link layer handles the addressing problem locally.
• The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the
upper layer,
• among other things, includes the logical address of the sender and
receiver.
• Routing. When independent networks or links are connected
together to create an internetwork (a network of networks) or a large
network, the connecting devices (called routers or gateways) route or
switch the packets to their final destination.
 TRANSPORT LAYER

• The transport layer is responsible for process the entire message.

• While the network layer oversees host individual packets, it does not
recognize any relationship between those packets.
• The transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact and
in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the
process-to-process level.
 Services provided by the Transport Layer to
the Upper layers
• Port addressing: computers often run several processes (running programs) at
the same time. Process delivery from a specific process on one computer to a
specific process on the other. The transport layer header include a type of
address called port address. The network layer gets each packet to the correct
computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process
on that computer.
 Services provided by the Transport Layer to
the Upper layers
• Segmentation and reassembly: a message is divided into transmittable
segments, each having a sequence number. These numbers enable the
transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arrival at the
destination.
• Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection-oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as
an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination
machine. A connection makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are
transferred, the connection is terminated.
 Services provided by the Transport Layer to
the Upper layers
• Flow control: the transport layer performs end to end flow control
• Error control: the transport layer performs process to process error control
rather than across a single link. The sending transport layer makes sure that
the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error
(damage, loss, duplication). Error control is usually achieved through
retransmission
 THE SESSION LAYER
• The session layer is the network dialog controller maintain, and synchronize the
interaction between communicating devices.
• Services provided to the upper layers:
• Dialog control; it allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half duplex or
full duplex.
• Synchronization; allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization
points, to a data stream of data e.g. if a system is sending 2000 pages, it is
advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each
200mpage unit is received and acknowledged independently. Incase a crash
happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be
resent will be from page 501 to 523
 THE APPLICATION LAYER

• The application layer enables the user to access the network. It provides
• user interfaces and support for services such electronic email, remote file
• access, WWW, and so on
• It provides the following services to the user
• • Network virtual terminal; is a software version of a physical terminal, and it allows
a user to log on to a remote host; to do so the application creates a software
emulation of a terminal at the remote host. The user’s computer talks to the
software terminal which in turn talks to the host, and vice
• • File transfer, access and management ; the application allows a user to access files
on a remote host (to make changes or read data), or retrieve flies on a remote
computer to a local computer and to manage or control files on a remote computer.
• • Mail services; the application provides the basis for mail forwarding and storage.
• • Directory services; the application provides distributed database sources and
• access for global information about various objects and services
 A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols

• Why OSI did not take over the world

• • Bad timing
• • Bad technology
• • Bad implementations
• • Bad politics
 NETWORK MODEL 2-TCP/IP
PROTOCOL SUITE
• Most widely used interoperable network protocol architecture
• • Specified and extensively used before OSI
• – OSI was slow to take place in the market
• • Funded by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its
packet switched network (ARPANET)
• – DoD automatically created an e
• • Used by the Internet and WWW
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• TCP/IP does not have an official layer structure
• • But protocols imply one
• – Application layer
• – Transport (host to host) layer
• – Internet layer
• – Network access layer
• – Physical layer
• • Actually TCP/IP reference model has been built on its protocols
• – That is why that reference model is only for TCP/IP protocol suite
• – and this is why it is not so important to assign roles to each layer in
• TCP/IP; understanding TCP, IP and the application protocols would be enough
OSI vs. TCP/IP
INTERNET LAYER
 TRANSPORT LAYER
• Five basic services:
• • Segmenting upper-layer application data
• • Establishing end-to-end operations
• • Sending segments from one end host to another end host
• • Ensuring data reliability
• • Providing flow control
APPLICATION LAYER
 Similarities of the OSI and TCP/IP Models
• Both have layers.
• Both have application layers, though they include very differentservices.
• Both have comparable transport and network layers
• Packet-switched, not circuit-switched, technology is assumed
• Networking professionals need to know both models layers.
 Differences of the OSI and TCP/IP Models

• TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer into its application layer.
• TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer
• TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers
• TCP/IP transport layer using UDP does not always guarantee reliable delivery
of packets as the transport layer in the OSI model does
IP (INTERNET PROTOCOL)