Chapter one

Basic Semiconductor
Theory

1
Prepared by Getachew N.
 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

 Describe the structure of an atom

 Explain how current occurs in a semiconductor

 Discuss the characteristics of doped semiconductors

 Describe the characteristics of p-n junction

 Explain how to bias a p-n junction

 Describe the basic diode characteristics

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 Introduction
 To acquire a basic understanding of semiconductors, we
must have some basic knowledge of atomic theory and
structure of semiconductors.
 In this chapter, we will learn about atomic theory.
 We will discuss the basic materials used in manufacturing
both discrete devices, such as diodes and transistors, and
integrated circuits.
 We will introduce p-n junctions, an important concept
essential for the understanding of diode and transistor
operation.
 Also, diode characteristics are introduced.
3
 Atomic Theory
 All matters are made of atoms; and all atoms consist of electrons,

protons, and neutrons.

 According to the classical Bohr model, atoms have a planetary type of

structure that consists of a central nucleus surrounded by orbiting

electrons.
 The nucleus consists of positively charged particles called protons and

uncharged particles called neutrons.

 The basic particles of negative charge are called electrons.

 The configuration of certain electrons in an atom is the key factor in

classifying electrical materials as conductor, semiconductor, and

4 insulator and determines how a given material conducts electrical

…Cont’d

 Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at certain distances from

the nucleus. Electrons near the nucleus have less energy than
those in more distant orbits.
 It is known that only discrete (separate and distinct) values of

electron energies exist within atomic structures. Therefore,

electrons must orbit only at discrete distances from the nucleus.
 Each discrete distance (orbit) from the nucleus corresponds to a

certain energy level.

 In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy bands known as
5
 …Cont’d
 Electrons that are in orbits farther from the nucleus have higher
energy and are less tightly bound to the atom than those closer
to the nucleus.
 This is because the force of attraction between the positively
charged nucleus and the negatively charged electron decreases
with increasing distance from the nucleus.
 Electrons with the highest energy exist in the outer most shell of
an atom and are relatively loosely bound to the atom.
 This outermost shell is known as the valence shell and
electrons in this shell are called valence electron.
 These valence electrons contribute to chemical reactions and
bonding within the structure of a material and determine its
electrical properties.
6
…Cont’d
 When an atom absorbs energy from a heat source or from

light, for example, the energies of the electrons are raised.

 The valence electrons possess more energy and are more

loosely bound to the atom than inner electrons. So they can

easily jump to higher orbits within the valence shell when
external energy is absorbed.
 If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy, it

can actually escape from the outer shell and the atom's
influence.
7
…Cont’d
 The departure of a valence electron leaves a previously neutral atom

with an excess of positive charge (more protons than electrons).

 The process of losing a valence electron is known as ionization and

the resulting positively charged atom is called a positive ion.

 The escaped valence electron is called a free electron.

 It is the movement of free electrons that provides electric current in

a metal conductor.
 When a free electron loses energy and falls into the outer shell of a

neutral atom, the atom becomes negatively charged (more electrons

8
than protons) and is called a negative ion.
…Cont’d

 Silicon atom, 14 orbiting electrons

9  Figure 1.1: Electrons distribution around the nucleus

Classification of Electrical Materials
 In terms of their electrical properties, materials can be classified

into three groups: conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.

 A conductor is a material that is easily conducts electricity.

 An insulator is a material that doesn’t conduct electrical current

under normal conditions.

 A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and

insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current.

A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good

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conductor nor a good insulator.
…Cont’d
 The best conductors are single-element materials, such as

copper, silver, and gold which are characterized by atoms with

only one valence electron very loosely bound to the atom.
 These loosely bound valence electrons can easily break away

from their atoms and become free electrons.

 Therefore, a conductive material has many free electrons that,

when moving in the same direction, make up the current.

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…Cont’d

 Most good insulators are compounds rather than single-element

materials. Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms;

therefore, there are very few free electrons in an insulator.
 The most common single-element semiconductors are silicon,

germanium, and carbon.

 Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide are also

commonly used.
 The single-element semiconductors are characterized by atoms

12 with four valence electrons.

 Resistivity Value of Materials

13
 Energy Bands
The outer most shell of an atom is known as the

valance shell and the range of energy possessed by

those valence electrons is known as valence Bands.
 When an electron acquires enough additional energy,

it can leave the valence shell, become a free electron,

and exist in what is known as the conduction band.
The difference in energy between the valence band

and the conduction band is called forbidden band

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…Cont’d
 This is the amount of energy that a valence electron must have

in order to jump from the valence band to the conduction

band. Once in the conduction band, the electron is free to
move throughout the material and is not tied to any given
atom.

15
 …Cont

16
Silicon and Germanium as semiconductor elements
o The atomic structures of silicon and germanium are compared in

Figure on the next power point. Silicon is the most widely used
material in diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, and other
semiconductor devices.
o Notice that both silicon and germanium have the characteristic of four

valence electrons.
o The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth shell while those

in silicon are in the third shell, closer to the nucleus. This means that
the germanium valence electrons are at higher energy levels than those

17
in silicon and, therefore require a smaller amount of additional energy
…Cont’d

o This property makes germanium more unstable at high

temperatures, and this is the basic reason why silicon is the

most widely used semi conductive material. In addition to this
it is readily available and has an advanced technology.

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 Types of semiconductors
 There are two types of semiconductor materials:

Intrinsic and

Extrinsic semiconductor materials.

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
 An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of

semiconductor material in its extremely pure form; common

examples of such semiconductors are: pure germanium and
silicon which have forbidden energy gap of 0.72eV and 1.1eV
respectively.
 A semiconductor atom achieves stability by sharing the

valance electrons of four of its neighboring atoms. Every

atom uses four of its own electrons and one each from four of
its neighbors to fill its p-sub shell.
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…Cont’d
 The result is a stable, tightly bound, lattice structure called a crystal. The interlocking
of semiconductor atoms through electron sharing is called covalent bonding.

 Figure: 1.2 - covalent bonding in a semiconductor crystal

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…Cont’d
 The net result is that each nucleus along with the inner shells is

surrounded by eight outer electrons tightly bound in the atomic

structure.
 This reflects the fact that there are no free electrons to produce

an electrical current if a voltage is applied to the material.

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Electron - Hole pair generation
 The amount of energy required for jumping the energy gap
can be supplied to the electrons from heat energy. At room
temperature some electron will have acquired the energy
to jump into the conduction band.
 If the temperature is increased so will the number of
electrons in the conduction band. This process is called
electron-hole pair generation.
 This is because by supplying energy electron can transfer
from the valance band to the conduction band and
produces a free electron in the conduction band and leaves
a hole (vacant electron position) in the valance band.

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…Cont’d

Electron

Hole

Figure 1.3 :- electron-hole generation

 Heat increases the conduction properties of pure
24 semiconductor.
Electron and Hole current
 When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon, as

shown in Figure on the next ppt, the thermally generated free

electrons in the conduction band, which are free to move
randomly in the crystal structure, are now easily attracted
toward the positive end.
 This movement of free electrons is one type of current in a

semi conductive material and is called electron current.

25
…Cont’d

26
…Cont’d
 Another type of current occurs in the valence band, where the
holes created by the free electrons exist. Electrons remaining
in the valence band are still attached to their atoms and are not
free to move randomly in the crystal structure as are the free
electrons.
 However, a valence electron can move into a nearby hole with
little change in its energy level, thus leaving another hole
where it came from.
 Effectively the hole has moved from one place to another in
the crystal structure, as illustrated in Figure on the next ppt.
Although current in the valence band is produced by valence
electrons, it is called hole current to distinguish it from
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electron current in the conduction band.
…Cont’d

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…Cont’d
 In a pure semiconductor materials the electron density

(electrons/m3) equals the hole density (holes/m3)

ni = pi (1-1)

n= number of electron, p= number of holes

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Drift current
 When an electrical potential applied across a semiconductor
the electric field established in the material caused free
electrons to drift in one direction and holes to drift in the
other. Because the positive holes moves in the opposite
direction from the negative electrons, these two components
of current add rather than cancel.
 The total current due to the electric filed is called the drift
current. Drift current depends on the ability of the charge
carriers to move through the semiconductor.
 The measure of this ability to move is called drift mobility
(µ). Note that the units of µ are square meter per volt-second.
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…Cont’d
vn = Ēµn and vp = Ēµp (1-2)

We can use carrier mobility to compute the total current density

J in a semiconductor when the electric field intensity is
known.

J=I/A (1-3)

J= Jn+ Jp = nqnµnĒ + pqpµpĒ = nqnvn + pqpvp (1-4)

J= current density, A/m2;

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…Cont’d
qn=qp= unit electron charge= 1.6 *10-19C;

Ē= electric field intensity, V/m;

vn , vp = electron and hole velocities, m/s

The conductivity of a semiconductor is:

σ = nµnqn+ pµpqp (1-5)

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Example 1

A bar of intrinsic germanium 4 cm long has pi = 2.4 × 1019 holes/m3.

The electron and hole mobility’s are 0.38 m2/ (V.s) and 0.18m2/
(V.s), respectively. What should be the dimensions of the cross-
section if it is to be square in shape and if 3.2mA are to flow in the
bar when a 60V potential difference applied across its end?
Solution
 We will assume that the electric field is established uniformly
throughout the bar and that all current flow is along the
horizontal axis of the bar (in the direction of the electric field).
Let dimension =d
Ē = (60V)/ (4 × 10-2) = 1500 V/m.
since the material is intrinsic, pi = ni = 2.4 × 1019 carriers/m3 and

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J = niqnĒ (µn +µp) = piqpĒ (µn +µp)
…Cont’d

J = piqpĒ (µn +µp) = (2.4 × 1019)*(1.6 × 10-19)*(1500)*(0.38 +

0.18) = 3225.6 A/m2

From equation 1.3, the cross-sectional area of the bar is

A = I/J= (3mA)/ (3225.6 A/m2) = 9.3 × 10-7 m2

Since the cross-section is square in shape A=d2

d= A = 0.965mm

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Example 2

Find the conductivity and resistivity of intrinsic silicon if

ni = 1.5x electrons/m3 and the electron and hole mobility’s
are 0.14 m2/(V.s) and 0.05 m2/(V.s), respectively.
Solution since the material is intrinsic, the conductivity of
silicon is:
σ = ni qn (µn+µp) = (1.5x )*(1.6 x )*(0.14 + 0.05)
= 4.56x S/m
And resistivity of silicon is
ρ = 1/ σ = 1/ (4.56x ) = 2192.98Ω.m

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Diffusion current
 Whenever there is a concentration of carriers (electrons or holes) in
one region of a semiconductor and a scarcity in other, the carriers
in the high density region will migrate toward the low density
region, until their distribution becomes more or less uniform.
 During the time that carriers are migration from the region of high
concentration to the one of low concentration, there is a transfer of
charge taking place, and therefore an electric current. This current
is called diffusion current.
 Apart from drift and diffusion, a third phenomenon which occurs
in semiconductors is called recombination that results from the
collision an electron with hole. The process is essentially the free
conduction electron to the valence band and is accompanied by the
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emission of energy.
Extrinsic Semiconductors
 Intrinsic semiconductor must be modified by increasing

the number of free electrons or holes to increase its

conductivity and make it useful in electronic devices. This
is done by adding impurities to intrinsic semiconductors.
 Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors where the
balance between holes and electrons is intentionally altered by
introducing certain impurity atoms into the crystal structure.
The process of introducing impurity atoms into a crystal
37 structure to create extrinsic semiconductor is called doping.
…Cont’d

 Based on the type of carriers (electrons or holes) increased we

have got two types of extrinsic semiconductors:

 N-type and

 P-type.

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 N-Type Semiconductor
 To increase the number of conduction band electrons in

intrinsic semiconductor, pentavalent impurity atoms are

added.
 These are atoms with five valence electrons such as

arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and

antimony (Sb).
 In this case the pentavalent atom gives up an electron,

it is often called donor atom.

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 …Cont’d

Figure 1.4:- Pentavalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal structure

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 …Cont’d
 Since most of the current carriers are electrons, silicon
(or germanium) doped with pentavalent atoms is an
N-Type semiconductor (the n stands for the negative
charge on an electron). The electrons are called the
majority carriers in n-type material.
 There are also a few holes that are created when
electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. These
holes are not produced by the addition of the
pentavalent impurity atoms. Holes in an n- type
material are called minority carriers.

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 P-Type Semiconductor
 To increase the number of holes in intrinsic
semiconductors, trivalent impurity atoms are added.
These are atoms with three valence electrons such as
boron (B), indium (In), and gallium (Ga).
 Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is

often referred to as an acceptor atom.

 Since most of the current carriers are holes, silicon (or

germanium) doped with trivalent atoms is called a P-

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type semiconductor.
 …Cont’d

Figure 1.5:- Trivalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal

structure
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 …Cont’d
 Holes can be thought of as positive charges because the

absence of an electron leaves a net positive charge on the atom.

 The holes are the majority carriers in P-type material.

 There are also a few free electrons that are created when

electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. These free

electrons are not produced by the addition of the

trivalent impurity atoms.
Electrons in P-type material are the minority carriers.
44
…Cont’d

 Figure 1.6:- n-type and p-type materials

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…Cont’d
 An important relationship between electron and hole density in most

practical semiconductor material is given by:

np = ni2 = pi2 (1-6)

n= electron density; p= hole density; ni= intrinsic electron density; pi =

intrinsic hole density

σ nµ q
n n for N-type material n >> p

σ
pµ q for P-type material p >> n
p p

 The conductivity of a semiconductor increases in direct proportion

46
to the degree of doping with impurity atoms that produce the
 Example 3
A bar of silicon with intrinsic electron density
electrons/m3 is doped with impurity atoms until the hole density
is holes/m3. The mobilities of the electrons and holes
are µn = 0.14 m2/ (V.s) and µp= 0.05 m2/ (V.s). Find the
extrinsic conductivity.
Solution
From equation 1.6 the electron density of extrinsic material is:
n ni2/p ( electrons/m3)
Since p > n, the material is P-type. From equation 1.5,
σ = nµnqn+ pµpqp = (0.14)( )+
( )(0.05)( )
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= + 68 68 S/m
 Chapter Two

Semiconductor diodes and their

application

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Introduction
 If a block of semiconductor doped part of it with a trivalent

impurity and the other part with a pentavalent impurity, a

boundary called the pn junction is formed between the
resulting p-type and n-type portions.
 As a result basic diode is created. A diode is a device that

conducts current in only one direction.

 The pn junction is the feature that allows diodes, certain
transistors, and other devices to work.

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The pn junction diodes

 Figure 1.7:- The basic diode structure at the instant of junction formation

50
Formation of the depletion region:
 The free electrons near the junction in the n region begin to
diffuse across the junction into the p region where they
combine with holes near the junction, as shown in Figure 1.8
(a) below.

51
Cont’d…
 When the pn junction is formed, the n region loses free
electrons as they diffuse across the junction. This creates a
layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the junction.
 As the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses
holes as the electrons and holes combine. This creates a layer
of negative charges (trivalent ions) near the junction.
 These two layers of positive and negative charges form the
depletion region, as shown in Figure 1.8(b).
 The term depletion refers to the region near the pn junction is
depleted of charge carriers (electrons and holes) due to
diffusion across the junction.

52
Cont’d…
 As electrons continue to diffuse across the junction, more and

more positive and negative charges are created near the

junction as the depletion region is formed.
 A point is reached where the total negative charge in the

depletion region repels any further diffusion of electrons

(negatively charged particles) into the p region (like charges
repel) and the diffusion stops.
 In other words, the depletion region acts as a barrier to the

53
further movement of electrons across the junction.
Cont’d…
 In the depletion region there are many positive charges and
many negative charges on opposite sides of the pn junction,
the forces between the opposite charges form a field of forces
called an electric field, as illustrated in figure 1.8(b). This
electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n region,
and energy must be expended to move an electron through the
electric field.
 The potential difference of the electric field across the
depletion region is the amount of voltage required to move
electrons through the electric field.
 This potential difference is called the barrier potential and is
expressed in volts.
54
Cont’d…
 The typical barrier potential is approximately 0.7 V for silicon
and 0.3 V for germanium at 25°C.
 The values of barrier potential, V O, depends on the doping levels
in the P and N regions, the type of material (Si and Ge), and the
temperature.

VO =

VO = barrier potential,
K = Boltzmann’s constant = J/0k,
T = temperature of the material in Kelvin
(0k = 273 + 0c),
q55 = electron charge =
Biasing a diode
 Generally the term bias refers to the use of a dc voltage to

establish certain operating conditions for an electronic device.

 In relation to a diode, there are two bias conditions:

1. forward and

2. reverse bias.
 Either of these bias conditions is established by connecting a

sufficient dc voltage of the proper polarity across the pn

junction.
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Forward bias :

 Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the pn

junction.
 Figure 1.9 shows a dc voltage source connected by conductive
material (contacts and wire) across a diode in the direction to
produce forward bias. This external bias voltage is designated as
VBIAS .
 The resistor, R, limits the current to a value that will not damage
the diode.
 Notice that the negative side of V BIAS is connected to the n region
of the diode and the positive side is connected to the p region. This
is one requirement for forward bias. A second requirement is that
57
the bias voltage, VBIAS, must be greater than the barrier potential.
Cont’d…

Figure 1.9:- A diode connected for forward bias

58
Cont’d…
 Because like charges repel, the negative side of the bias-
voltage source "pushes" the free electrons, which are the
majority carriers in the n region, toward the pn junction. This
flow of free electrons is called electron current.
 The negative side of the source also provides a continuous
flow of electrons through the external connection (conductor)
and into the n region as shown.
 The bias-voltage source imparts sufficient energy to the free
electrons for them to overcome the barrier potential of the
depletion region and move on through into the p region.
 Once in the p region, these conduction electrons have lost
enough energy to immediately combine with holes in the
valence band.
59
Cont’d…

Figure 1.10:- A forward biased diode showing the flow of majority carriers and
60 the voltage due to the barrier potential across the depletion region.
Cont’d…
 The positive side of the bias-voltage source attracts the

valence electrons toward the left end of the p region.

 The holes in the p region provide the medium or "pathway"

for these valence electrons to move through the p region. The

electrons move from one hole to the next toward the left.
 The holes, which are the majority carriers in the p region,

effectively (not actually) move to the right toward the

junction, as you can see in Figure 1.10. This effective flow of
holes is called the hole current.
61
Cont’d…
 As the electrons flow out of the p region through the external

connection (conductor) and to the positive side of the bias-

voltage source, they leave holes behind in the p region; at the
same time, these electrons become conduction electrons in the
metal conductor.
 As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number

of positive ions is reduced. As more holes effectively flow into

the depletion region on the other side of the pn junction, the
number of negative ions is reduced.
62
Cont’d…
 This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward bias causes

the depletion region to narrow, as indicated in Figure 1.11.

At Equilibrium (No bias) (b) Forward bias narrow the depletion region.

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Figure 1.11: Effect of forward bias on depletion region
Reverse bias:

 Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current

through the diode.

 Figure 1.12 shows a dc voltage source connected across a diode

in the direction to produce reverse bias. This external bias

voltage is designated as VBIAS just as it was for forward bias.

 Notice that the positive side of V BIAS is connected to the n region

of the diode and the negative side is connected to the p region.

 The depletion region is shown much wider than in forward bias

64
or equilibrium.
Cont’d…

Figure 1.12: A diode connected for reverse bias.

 A limiting resistor is shown in the figure above though it

is not important in reverse bias since there is essentially no
65
current.
Cont’d…
 Because unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-
voltage source "pulls" the free electrons, which are the
majority carriers in the n region, away from the pn junction.
 As the electrons flow toward the positive side of the voltage
source, additional positive ions are created. This results in a
widening of the depletion region and a depletion of majority
carriers.

 Figure 1.13: The diode during the short transition time immediately after

66
reverse bias voltage is applied
Cont’d…
 In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage
source enter as valence electrons and move from hole to hole
toward the depletion region where they create additional negative
ions. This results in a widening of the depletion region and a
depletion of majority carriers. The flow of valence electrons can
be viewed as holes being "pulled" toward the negative side.
 The initial flow of charge carriers is transitional and lasts for
only a very short time after the reverse-bias voltage is applied.
As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority
carriers decreases.
 As more of the n and p regions become depleted of majority
carriers, the electric field between the positive and negative ions
increases in strength until the potential across the depletion
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region equals the bias voltage, VBIAS.
Cont’d…
 At this point, the transition current essentially ceases except for
a very small reverse current that can usually be neglected.
 Reverse Current: The extremely small current that exists in
reverse bias after the transition current dies out is caused by
the minority carriers in the n and p regions that are produced
by thermally generated electron-hole pairs.
 The small numbers of free minority electrons in the p region
are "pushed" toward the pn junction by the negative bias
voltage. When these electrons reach the wide depletion region,
they "fall down the energy hill" and combine with the minority
holes in the n region as valence electrons and flow toward the
positive bias voltage, creating a small hole current.

68
Cont’d…

Figure 1.14: The extremely small reverse current in a reverse biased diode is due
to the minority carriers from the thermally generated electron-hole pair.

69
Cont’d…
 Reverse Breakdown: Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can
be neglected. However, if the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to
a value called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will drastically
increase.
 The high reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free minority
electrons so that as they speed through the p region, they collide with
atoms with enough energy to knock valence electrons out of orbit and into
the conduction band. The newly created conduction electrons are also high
in energy and repeat the process.
 If one electron knocks only two others out of their valence orbit during its
travel through the p region. The numbers quickly multiply. As these high-
energy electrons go through the depletion region, they have enough energy
to go through the n region as conduction electrons, rather than combining
with holes.
 The multiplication of conduction electrons just discussed is known as
avalanche and results in a very high reverse current that can damage the
70 diode because of excessive heat dissipation.
Transition and Diffusion Capacitance

 Electronic devices are inherently sensitive to very high

frequencies.
 Most shunt capacitive effects that can be ignored at lower
frequencies because the reactance XC =1/2πfC is very large
(open-circuit equivalent). This, however, cannot be ignored at
very high frequencies. XC will become sufficiently small due to
the high value of f to introduce a low-reactance “shorting”
path.
 In the p-n semiconductor diode, there are two capacitive
effects to be considered. Both types of capacitance are present
in the forward- and reverse-bias regions, but one so outweighs
the other in each region that we consider the effects of only
one in each region.
71
Cont’d…
 In the reverse-bias region we have the transition- or depletion-
region capacitance (CT); while in the forward-bias region we
have the diffusion (CD) or storage capacitance.
 Recall that the basic equation for the capacitance of a parallel-
plate capacitor is defined by C = εA/d, where ε is the permittivity
of the dielectric (insulator) between the plates of area A separated
by a distance d.
 In the reverse-bias region there is a depletion region that
behaves essentially like an insulator between the layers of
opposite charge. Since the depletion width (d) will increase with
increased reverse-bias potential, the resulting transition
capacitance will decrease, as shown in the figure below.
 The fact that the capacitance is dependent on the applied reverse-
bias potential has application in a number of electronic systems.
72
Cont’d…

A figure of transition and diffusion capacitance versus applied bias voltage for a silicon
diode is shown above.
 The capacitive effects described above are represented by a capacitor in parallel
with the ideal diode, as shown in Figure below.
 For low- or mid-frequency applications (except in the power area), however, the
capacitor is normally not included in the diode symbol.

A73figure including the effect of transition or diffusion capacitance on the semiconductor diode
is shown above
Voltage-Current Characteristics of Diodes

 It can be demonstrated through the use of solid-state physics that the

general characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be defined by
the following equation for the forward- and reverse-bias regions:

Where Is = reverse saturation current

k =11,600/ɳ with ɳ =1 for Ge and ɳ = 2 for Si for relatively low levels
of diode current (at or below the knee of the curve) and
ɳ =1 for Ge and Si for higher levels of diode current (in the rapidly
increasing section of the curve)
TK = TC + 2730
74
Voltage-Current Characteristics for forward biased diode

 When a forward-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is current. This

current is called the forward current and is designated IF. Figure 1.15
illustrates what happens as the forward-bias voltage is increased positively
from 0V. The resistor is used to limit the forward current to a value that will
not overheat the diode and cause damage.

Figure 1.15(a): Small forward bias voltage (VF<0.7V). Figure 1.15(b): Forward voltage reaches 0.7V
75 and remains at approximately 0.7V. Forward current continues to increase as the bias voltage
is increased.
Cont’d…
 If you plot the results of the type of measurements shown in Figure 1.15 on a
graph, you will get the V-I characteristic curve for a forward-biased diode, as
shown in Figure 1.16(a).
 The diode forward voltage (V F) increases to the right along the horizontal
axis, and the forward current (IF) increases upward along the vertical axis.
 As you can see in Figure 1.16(a), the forward current increases very little until
the forward voltage across the pn junction reaches approximately 0.7 V at the
knee of the curve.
 After this point, the forward voltage remains at approximately 0.7 V, but I F
increases rapidly.
 There is a slight increase in VF above 0.7 V as the current increases due mainly
to the voltage drop across the dynamic resistance. Normal operation for a
forward-biased diode is above the knee of the curve. The I F scale is typically
76
in mA, as indicated.
Cont’d…

77
Cont’d…
 Three points A, B, and C are shown on the curve in Figure

1.16(a).
 Point A corresponds to a zero-bias condition. Point B

corresponds to Figure 1.15(a) where the forward voltage is less

than the barrier potential of 0.7 V. Point C corresponds to Figure
1.15(b) where the forward voltage approximately equals the
barrier potential.
 As the external bias voltage and forward current continue to

increase above the knee, the forward voltage will increase

78
slightly above 0.7 V.
Resistance Levels:
 As the operating point of a diode moves from one region to
another the resistance of the diode will also change due to the
nonlinear shape of the characteristic curve. Three levels will
be introduced here.
a) DC or Static Resistance: The application of a dc voltage to a
circuit containing a semiconductor diode will result in an
operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change
with time. The resistance of the diode at the operating point
can be found simply by finding the corresponding levels of
VD and ID as shown in figure below and applying the
following equation. Here VD = VF and ID = IF.

79
Cont’d…

 The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater

than the resistance levels obtained for the vertical rise section
of the characteristics.
 The resistance levels in the reverse-bias region will naturally
be quite high.

80
Cont’d…
(b) AC or Dynamic resistance: Figure 1.16(b) is an expanded view
of the V-I characteristic curve in part (a) and illustrate dynamic
resistance. Unlike a linear (dc) resistance, the resistance of the
forward-biased diode is not constant over the entire curve.
 Because the resistance changes as you move along the V-I
curve, it is called dynamic or ac resistance. Internal
resistances of electronic devices are usually designated by
lowercase italic r with a prime, instead of the standard R.
 The dynamic resistance of a diode is designated r’d. Below the
knee of the curve the resistance is greatest because the current
increases very little for a given change in voltage
(r’d=∆VF/∆IF).
 The resistance begins to decrease in the region of the knee of
the curve and becomes smallest above the knee where there is
81
a large change in current for a given change in voltage.
Cont’d…
 Sometimes the resistances due to the semiconductor itself
(called the body resistance) and the resistance introduced by
the connection between the semiconductor material and the
external metallic conductor (called the contact resistance)
could be added to the dynamic resistance.
 These additional resistance could range from typically 0.1 0hm
for high power devices to 2 ohm for low power devices.
 In the reverse bias region we will assume that the change in
current along the Is line is nil from 0 V to the breakdown
region and the resulting ac resistance is sufficiently high to
permit the open circuit approximation.

82
Cont’d…
c) Average Ac Resistance: If the input signal is sufficiently large
to produce broad swing such as indicated in the figure below,
the resistance associated with the device for this region is
called the average ac resistance. The average ac resistance is,
by definition, the resistance determined by the straight line
drawn by the two intersection established by the maximum and
minimum values of input voltage.

83
Voltage-Current characteristics for reverse bias:
 When a reverse-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is only
an extremely small reverse current (I R) through the pn junction.
 With 0 V across the diode, there is no reverse current. As we
gradually increase the reverse-bias voltage, there is a very small
reverse current and the voltage across the diode increases.
 When the applied bias voltage is increased to a value where the
reverse voltage across the diode (V R) reaches the breakdown value
(VBR), the reverse current begins to increase rapidly.
 As we continue to increase the bias voltage, the current continues to
increase very rapidly, but the voltage across the diode increases very
little above VBR. Breakdown, with exceptions, is not a normal mode
of operation for most pn junction devices.

84
Cont’d…
 The diode reverse voltage (VR) increases to the left along the
horizontal axis, and the reverse current (IR) increases
downward along the vertical axis.

Figure 1.17: V-I characteristic curve of reverse biased diode

85
Cont’d…

 There is very little reverse current (usually in µA or nA) until

the reverse voltage across the diode reaches approximately the

breakdown value (VBR) at the knee of the curve.

 After this point, the reverse voltage remains at approximately

VBR, but IR increases very rapidly, resulting in overheating and

possible damage. The breakdown voltage for a typical silicon
diode can vary, but a minimum value of 50 V is common.

86
The complete V-I characteristics curve

87 Figure 1.18: The complete V-I characteristics of a diode

 Diode Models
 A diode is a single pn junction device with conductive contacts
and wire leads connected to each region
 There are several types of diodes, but the schematic symbol for a
general-purpose or rectifier diode is shown in Fig below. The n
region is called the cathode and the p region is called the anode.
The "arrow" in the symbol points in the direction of conventional
current (opposite to electron flow).

88
Cont’d…
a) The ideal diode model: is a simple switch. When the diode is forward-biased,
it acts like a closed (on) switch, as shown in Figure 1.19(a). When the diode
is reverse-biased, it acts like an open (off) switch, as shown in part (b).
 The barrier potential, the forward dynamic resistance, and the reverse
current are all neglected.

(a) Forward bias (b) Reverse bias (c) Ideal characteristics curve
89 Figure 1.19: The ideal model of a diode
 Cont’d…
 Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance are neglected,
the diode is assumed to have a zero voltage across it when forward-biased, as
indicated by the portion of the curve on the positive vertical axis.
VF = 0V.
 The forward current is determined by the bias voltage and the limiting resistor
using Ohm's law.
I= ........................................................................................Eq. 1

 Since the reverse current is neglected, its value is assumed to be zero, as

indicated in Figure 1.19(c) by the portion of the curve on the negative
horizontal axis.
IR = 0A.
 The reverse voltage equals the bias voltage.
VR = VBIAS
 You may want to use the ideal model when you are troubleshooting or trying to
figure
90 out the operation of a circuit and are not concerned with more exact
values of voltage or current.
 Cont’d…
b) Practical Model of diodes: adds the barrier potential to the ideal switch
model. When the diode is forward-biased, it is equivalent to a closed switch in
series with a small equivalent voltage source equal to the barrier potential (0.7
V) with the positive side toward the anode, as indicated in Figure 1.20(a). This
equivalent voltage source represents the fixed voltage drop (VF) produced
across the forward-biased pn junction of the diode and is not an active source
of voltage.

91 (a)Forward bias (b) Reverse bias (c) Characteristic curve (Silicon).

Figure 1.20: The practical model of a diode
Cont’d…
 Since the barrier potential is included and the dynamic
resistance is neglected, the diode is assumed to have a voltage
across it when forward-biased, as indicated by the portion of
the curve to the right of the origin.
VF = O.7V
 The forward current is determined as follows by first applying
Kirchhoff's voltage law to Figure 1.20(a):
VBIAS – VF – VRLIMIT = 0 ………………………….Eq. 2
VRLIMIT = IF* RLIMIT …………………………Eq. 3

IF =

92
Cont’d…
 The diode is assumed to have zero reverse current, as indicated
by the portion of the curve on the negative horizontal axis.
IR = 0A; VR = VBIAS
c) The Complete Diode Model: consists of the barrier potential,
the small forward dynamic resistance (r’d), and the large
internal reverse resistance (r’R). The reverse resistance is taken
into account because it provides a path for the reverse current,
which is included in this diode model.
 When the diode is forward-biased, it acts as a closed switch in
series with the barrier potential voltage and the small forward
dynamic resistance (r’d), as indicated in Figure1.21 (a).

93
Cont’d…
 When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts as an open switch in
parallel with the large internal reverse resistance (r’R), as
shown in Figure 1.21(b). The barrier potential does not affect
reverse bias, so it is not a factor.

(a)Forward bias (b) Reverse bias (c) Characteristic

curve (Silicon)
94
Figure 1.21: The complete model of diode
 Cont’d…
 Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance are included, the
diode is assumed to have a voltage across it when forward-biased.
 This voltage (VF) consists of the barrier potential voltage plus the small voltage drop
across the dynamic resistance, as indicated by the portion of the curve to the right of
the origin. The curve slopes because the voltage drop due to dynamic resistance
increases as the current increases. For the complete model of a silicon diode, the
following formulas apply:

V F = 0.7V + IF *rd …………………………………...Eq. 4

IF = ……………………………………….Eq. 5

 The reverse current is taken into account with the parallel resistance and is
indicated by the portion of the curve to the left of the origin.
 The breakdown portion of the curve is not shown because breakdown is not
95
a normal mode of operation for most diodes.
 Applications of diodes

Rectifiers
 Because of their ability to conduct current in one direction and
block current in the other direction, diodes are used in circuits
called rectifiers that convert ac voltage into dc voltage.
 Rectifiers are found in all dc power supplies that operate from
an ac voltage source. Hence; rectification is the process of
converting ac power into dc power using rectifiers.
 Rectifiers may be of the following two types depending upon
the period of conduction.

96
Cont’d…
1. Half-wave rectifiers
 In the half-wave rectifiers, a diode is connected to an ac
source and to a load resistor, RL, forming a half-wave
rectifier.
 Let's examine what happens during one cycle of the input
voltage using the ideal model for the diode.
 When the sinusoidal input voltage (Vin ) goes positive, the
diode is forward-biased and conducts current through the
load resistor, as shown in part (a).
 The current produces an output voltage across the load R L
which has the same shape as the positive half-cycle of the
input voltage.
97
Cont’d…
 When the input voltage goes negative during the second half of
its cycle, the diode is reverse-biased. There is no current, so the
voltage across the load resistor is 0 V, as shown in Figure 1.22(b).
 The net result is that only the positive half-cycles of the ac input
voltage appear across the load. Since the output does not change
polarity, it is a pulsating dc voltage with a frequency of 50 Hz, as
shown in part (c).

(a) During the positive alternation of the input voltage, the output voltage looks
98 like the positive half of the input voltage.
Cont’d…

(b) During the negative alternation of the input voltage, the current is zero, so the
output voltage is zero volts.

(c) Half-wave output voltage for three input cycles.


99
Figure 1.22: Half-wave rectifier operation.
Cont’d…
 The average value of the half-wave rectified output voltage is
the value you would measure on a dc voltmeter.
 Mathematically, it is determined by finding the area under the
curve over a full cycle, as illustrated in Figure 1.23, and then
dividing by 2π, the number of radians in a full cycle. The result
of this is shown in the equation below. This equation shows
that VAVG is approximately 31.8% of VP for a half-wave
rectified voltage.
VAVG =

 Figure 1.23: Average value of the half-wave rectifier

100
Cont’d…
 When the practical diode model is used with the barrier potential of
0.7 V taken into account; during the positive half-cycle, the input
voltage must overcome the barrier potential before the diode
becomes forward-biased.
 This results in a half-wave output with a peak value that is 0.7 V
less than the peak value of the input, as shown in Figure 1.24. The
expression for the peak output voltage is:
VP (out) = VP (in) - 0.7 V

Figure 1.24: The effect of the barrier potential on the half-wave rectified output. 101
Cont’d…
2. Full-wave rectifiers: is the most commonly used type in dc
power supplies.
 A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way) current
through the load during the entire 3600 of the input cycle, whereas a
half-wave rectifier allow­current through the load only during one-
half of the cycle.
 The result of full-wave rectification is an output voltage with a
frequency twice the input frequency that pulsates every half-cycle
of the input, as shown in Figure 1.25.

102
Figure 1.25: Full-wave rectification.
Cont’d…
 The number of positive alternations that make up the full-wave
rectified voltage is twice that of the half-wave voltage for the
same time interval.
 The average value for a full-wave rectified sinusoidal voltage
is twice that of the half-wave, as shown in the following
formula:
VAVG =
 VAVG is approximately 63.7% of Vp for a full-wave rectified
voltage.
 There are two types of full-wave rectifiers: center-tapped and
bridge.

103
Cont’d…
a)The Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier: is a type of full-wave
rectifier that uses two diodes connected to the secondary of a
center-tapped transformer, as shown in Figure 1.26.
 The input voltage is coupled through the transformer to the
center-tapped secondary. Half of the total secondary voltage
appears between the center tap and each end of the secondary
winding as shown.

 Figure 1.26: A center-tapped full-wave rectifier.

104
Cont’d…
 For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the polarities of
the secondary voltages are as shown in Figure 1.27(a).
 This condition is forward-biases diode D1 and reverse-biases
diode D2. The current path is through D1 and the load resistor
RL as indicated.
 For a negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the voltage
polarities on the secondary are as shown in Figure 1.27(b).
This condition is reverse-biases D1 and forward-biases D2. The
current path is through D2 and RL as indicated.
 Because the output current during both the positive and
negative portions of the input cycle is in the same direction
through the load, the output voltage developed across the load
resistor is a full-wave rectified dc voltage, as shown.
105
Cont’d…

a) During positive half-cycles D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased.

b) During positive half-cycles D1 is reverse biased and D2 is forward biased.

 106
Figure 1.27: Basic operation of center-tapped full-wave rectifier.
Cont’d…
 If the transformer's turns ratio is 1, the peak value of the
rectified output voltage equals half the peak value of the
primary input voltage less the barrier potential, as illustrated in
Figure 1.28. Half of the primary voltage appears across each
half of the secondary winding (Vp(sec) = Vp(pri)).

 Figure 1.28: Center-tapped full-wave rectifier with turn ration, n=1.

107
Cont’d…

Figure 1.29: Center-tapped full-wave rectifier with turn ration, n=2.

 In any case, the output voltage of a center-tapped full-wave
rectifier is always one-half of the total secondary voltage less
the diode drop, no matter what the turns ratio.
Vout= - 0.7V

108
 Cont’d…
a) The Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier: uses four diodes
connected as shown in Figure 1.30.

Figure 1.30 full – wave bridge rectifier

 During the period t = 0 to T/2 the polarity of the input is as shown in
Fig. 1.31a. The resulting polarities across the ideal diodes are also
shown in Fig. 1.31a to reveal that D2 and D3 are conducting while D1
and D4 are in the “off” state. The net result is the configuration of Fig.
1.31b, with its indicated current and polarity across R.
 Since the diodes are ideal the load voltage is vo = vi, as shown in the 109
Cont’d…

Figure 1.31 (a) Network of Fig.1.30 for the period 0 to T/2 of the input voltage vi.
(b) Conduction path for the positive region of vi.
 For the negative region of the input the conducting diodes are
D1 and D4, resulting in the configuration of Fig. 1.32. The
important result is that the polarity across the load resistor R is
the same as in Fig. 1.31a, establishing a second positive pulse,
as shown in Fig. 1.31.
110
Cont’d…

Figure 1.32 Conduction path for the negative region of vi.

 Over one full cycle the input and output voltages will appear as
shown in Fig. 1.33. since the area above the axis for one full
cycle is now twice that obtained for a half-wave system, the dc
level has also be doubled and
= 0.636 Vm
111
Cont’d…

Figure 1.33 input and output waveform for a full-wave rectifier

 If silicon rather than ideal diodes are employed as shown in
Fig. 1.34, an application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the
conduction path would result in
=0

112
Cont’d…
The peak value of the output voltage vo is therefore
=
For situation where Vm >>VT the average value is determined by
0.636( 2 )

Figure 1.34 Determining for silicon diodes in the bridge configuration.

113
Clipper and Clamping circuits

Clippers
 There are networks that have the ability to “clip” off a portion
of input signal without distorting the remaining part of the
alternating waveform, E.g. Half-wave rectifier.
 There are two general categories of clippers:
1. Series clipper
2. Parallel clipper
1. Series clipper
 The diode is in series with the load. The response of the series
configuration of Fig. 1.35a to a variety of alternating
waveforms is provided in Fig. 1.35b.

114
Cont’d…

Figure 1.35 series clipper.

115
Cont’d…
 The addition of a dc supply can have a pronounced effect on
the output of a clipper.

Figure 1.36 series clipper with a dc supply

 There are a few thoughts to keep in mind as you work toward a
solution while analyzing network such as the type shown in
fig.1.36.

116
Cont’d…
i. Make a mental sketch of the response of the network based on the
direction of the diode and the applied voltage levels. For network
shown in fig.1.36, the direction of the diode suggests that the signal
vi must be positive to turn it on.
ii. The dc supply further requires that voltage vi be greater than V volts
to turn the diode on. The negative region of the input signal is
“pressuring” the diode into the “off” state, supported further by the
dc supply.
iii. Determine the applied voltage (transition voltage) that will cause a
change in state for the diode. For ideal diode the transition between
states will occur at the point on the characteristics where vd = 0 V
and id = 0 A. applying this condition to the network of fig.1.36 will
result in the configuration of fig.1.37, where it is recognized that the
level of vi that will cause a transition in state is
117 =V
Cont’d…

Figure 1.37 determining the transition level

 For an input voltage greater than V volts the diode is in the
short-circuit state, while for input voltages less than V volts it
is in the open-circuit or “off” state.
iv. Be continually aware of the defined terminal and polarity of
vo. when the diode is in the short- circuit state, such as shown
in fig.1.38, the output voltage vo can be determined by
applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the clock – wise direction:

118
Cont’d…
0

Figure 1.38 determining

 When the diode is in the open-circuit state id = 0. Therefore,
= idR = 0(R) = 0V.
 It can be helpful to sketch the input signal above the output
and determine the output at instantaneous values of the input.
 For instance, at vi = Vm for the network of Fig. 1.36, the
network to be analyzed appears in Fig. 1.39a.
119
Cont’d…
 For Vm > V the diode is in the short-circuit state and
vo = Vm - V, as shown in Fig. 1.49b.
 At vi = V the diodes change state;
 at vi = -Vm, vo = 0 V; and the complete curve for vo can be
sketched as shown in Fig.1.39b.

Figure 1.39 (a) determining vo when vi = Vm, (b) Sketching vo.

120
Cont’d…
2. Parallel clipper
 The diode is in a branch parallel to the load. The network of
fig.1.40 is the simplest of parallel diode configurations with
the output for the same input of fig.1.35.
 The analysis of parallel configuration is very similar to that
applied to series configurations.

 Figure 1.40 responses in parallel clipper

121
Cont’d…
Clampers
 The clamping network is one that will “clamp” a signal to a
different dc level.
 The network must have a capacitor, a diode, and a resistive
element, but it can also employ an independent dc supply to
introduce an additional shift.
 The magnitude of R and C must be chosen such that the time
constant RC is large enough to ensure that the voltage
across the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the
interval the diode is non-conducting.
 Throughout the analysis we will assume that for all practical
purposes the capacitor will fully charge or discharge in five
time constants.
122
Cont’d…
 The network of Fig. 1.41 will clamp the input signal to the
zero level (for ideal diodes). The resistor R can be the load
resistor or a parallel combination of the load resistor and a
resistor designed to provide the desired level of R.
 For a clamping network: the total swing of the output is equal
to the total swing of the input signal.

Figure 1.41 Clamper network

123
Cont’d…
 Generally, the following steps are helpful when analyzing
clamping networks:
1. Start the analysis by considering part of the input signal that
will forward bias the diode.
2. During the period that the diode is in the “on” state, assume
that the capacitor will charge up instantaneously to a voltage
level determined by the network.
3. Assume that during the period when the diode is in the “off”
state the capacitor will hold on to its established voltage level.
4. Throughout the analysis maintain a continual awareness of the
location and reference polarity for vo to insure that the proper
levels for vo are obtained.
5. Keep in mind the general rule that the total swing of the total
output must match the swing of the input signal. 124
Power supply filters and regulators

 A power supply filter ideally eliminates the fluctuations in the

output voltage of a half-wave or full-wave rectifier and
produces a constant-level dc voltage.
 Filtering is necessary because electronic circuits require a
constant source of dc voltage and current to provide power and
biasing for proper operation. Filters are implemented with
capacitors.
 Voltage regulation in power supplies is usually done with
integrated circuit voltage regulators. A voltage regulator
prevents changes in the filtered dc voltage due to variations in
input voltage or load.
 In most power supply applications, the standard 60 Hz ac
power line voltage must be converted to an approximately
125 constant dc voltage.
Cont’d…
 The 60 Hz pulsating dc output of a half-wave rectifier or the
120 Hz pulsating output of a full-wave rectifier must be
filtered to reduce the large voltage variations. Fig.1.42
illustrates the filtering concept showing a nearly smooth dc
output voltage from the filter.
 The small amount of fluctuation in the filter output voltage is
called ripple.

Figure 1.42 Rectifier with filter

126
Cont’d…
 A half-wave rectifier with a capacitor-input filter is shown in

Fig. 1.43. The filter is simply a capacitor connected from the

rectifier output to ground. RL represents the equivalent
resistance of a load.
 During the positive first quarter-cycle of the input, the diode is

forward-biased, allowing the capacitor to charge to within 0.7 V

of the input peak, as illustrated in Fig. 1.43(a). When the input
begins to decrease below its peak as shown in part (b), the
capacitor retains its charge and the diode becomes reverse-
biased because the cathode is more positive than the anode. 127
Cont’d…
 During the remaining part of the cycle, the capacitor can discharge

only through the load resistance at a rate determined by the RLC

time constant which is normally long compared to the period of
the input.
 The larger the time constant the less the capacitor will discharge.

During the first quarter of the next cycle, as illustrated in part (c),
the diode will again become forward-biased when the input
voltage exceeds the capacitor voltage by approximately 0.7 V.
 The variation in the capacitor voltage due to the charging and

discharging is called the ripple voltage. 128

Cont’d…
 Generally, ripple is undesirable; thus, the smaller the ripple, the

better the filtering action.

 For a given input frequency, the output frequency of a full-wave

rectifier is twice that of a half-wave rectifier. This makes a full-

wave rectifier easier to filter because of the shorter time between
peaks.
 When filtered, the full-wave rectified voltage has a smaller ripple

than does a half-wave voltage for the same load resistance and
capacitor values. The capacitor discharges less during the shorter
interval between full-wave pulses, as shown in Fig. 1.44. 129
Cont’d…

 Figure 1.43 Operation of a half-wave rectifier with a capacitor-input filter. The current indicates
130
charging or discharging of the capacitor.
Cont’d…

Figure 1.44 Comparison of ripple voltages for half-wave and full-wave

rectified voltages with the same filter capacitor and load and derived from
the same sinusoidal input voltage.
 The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of the
filter and is defined as: 131
 Cont’d…

132
Cont’d…

 Where, is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage and is the dc

(average) value of the filter's output voltage, as illustrated in
Fig.1.45.
 The lower the ripple factor, the better the filter. The ripple factor
can be lowered by increasing the value of the filter capacitor or
increasing the load resistance.

133
Cont’d…
 For a full-wave rectifier with a capacitor-input filter,
approximations for the peak-to-peak ripple voltage, and
the dc value of the filter output voltage , are given in the
following expressions. The variable is the unfiltered
peak rectified voltage.

134
Cont’d…
 A voltage regulator is connected to the output of a filtered
rectifier and maintains a constant output voltage (or current)
despite changes in the input, the load current, or the
temperature.
 The combination of a large capacitor and a voltage regulator
helps produce an excellent power supply. Most regulators are
integrated circuits and have three terminals-an input terminal,
an output terminal, and a reference (or adjust) terminal.

135
Cont’d…
 The input to the regulator is first filtered with a capacitor
to reduce the ripple to < 10%. The regulator reduces the
ripple to a negligible amount.

Figure 1.46 Voltage regulator with input and output capacitors. 136
Cont’d…
 A basic fixed power supply with a +5 V voltage regulator is
shown in Fig.1.47.

Figure:-1.47 A basic +5 V voltage regulated power supply

137
Cont’d…
 The regulation expressed as a percentage is a figure of merit
used to specify the performance of a voltage regulator. It can
be in terms of input (line) regulation or load regulation.
 Line regulation specifies how much change occurs in the
output voltage for a given change in the input voltage.
Line regulation =
 Load regulation specifies how much change occurs in the
output voltage over certain range of load current values,
usually from minimum current (no load, NL) to maximum
current (full load, FL).
Load regulation =
Where, is the output voltage with no load and is the output
voltage with full (maximum) load.
138
Special Porpuse Diodes

1. Zener diode: is a silicon pn junction device that is designed

for operation in the reverse-breakdown region.
 The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is set by carefully
controlling the doping level during manufacture.
 A major application for zener diode is as a type of voltage regulator
for providing stable reference voltages for use in power supplies,
voltmeters, and other instruments.

Figure 1.48: Zener diode symbol 139

Cont’d…
 When a diode reaches reverse breakdown, its voltage remains
almost constant even though the current changes drastically. This
volt-ampere characteristic is shown in Figure 1.49 with normal
operating regions for rectifier diodes and for zener diodes shown
as shaded areas.
 If a zener diode is forward-biased, it operates the same as a
rectifier diode.

140
Cont’d…
 Two types of reverse break down in a zener diode are
avalanche and zener breakdown.
 The avalanche breakdown, occurs in both rectifier and zener
diodes at a sufficiently high reverse voltage.
 Zener breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse
voltages. A zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the
breakdown voltage. This causes a very thin depletion region.
As a result, an intense electric field exists within the depletion
region. Near the zener breakdown voltage (VZ), the field is
intense enough to pull electrons from their valence bands and
create current.
 Zener diodes with breakdown voltages of less than
approximately 5 V operate predominately in zener breakdown.
141
Cont’d…
 Those with breakdown voltages greater than approximately 5
V operate predominately in avalanche breakdown. Both types
however are called zener diodes. Zeners are commercially
available with breakdown voltages of 1.8 V to 200 V with
specified tolerances from 1% to 20%.
 A zener diode operating in breakdown acts as a voltage
regulator because it maintains a nearly constant voltage across
its terminals over a specified range of reverse-current values.
Zener equivalent circuit: Figure 1.50(a) shows the ideal model of
a zener diode in reverse breakdown. It has a constant voltage
drop equal to the nominal zener voltage.

142
Cont’d…
 This constant voltage drop is represented by a dc voltage
source even though the zener diode does not actually produce
an emf voltage. The dc source simply indicates that the effect
of reverse breakdown is a constant voltage across the zener
terminals.
 Figure 1.50(b) represents the practical model of a zener diode,
where the zener impedance (Zz) is included. Since the actual
voltage curve is not ideally vertical, a change in zener current
(∆lz) produces a small change in zener voltage (∆Vz), as
illustrated in Figure 1.50(c).
 By Ohm's law, the ratio of ∆Vz to ∆lz is the impedance as
expressed in the following equation:
ZZ =
143
Cont’d…

(c)
Figure 1.50: Zener diode equivalent circuit models and characteristic curve
illustrating ZZ.

144
Cont’d…
Zener diode applications:
 The zener diode can be used as a type of voltage regulator for
providing stable reference voltages. In this section, we will see how
zeners can be used as regulators and as simple limiters or clippers.
a) Zener regulation with a varying input voltage:
 Figure 1.51 illustrates how a zener diode can be used to regulate a
varying dc voltage. As the input voltage varies (within limits), the
zener diode maintains a nearly constant output voltage across its
terminals.
 However, as VIN changes, Iz will change proportionally so that the
limitations on the input voltage variation are set by the minimum
and maximum current Values (lZK and IZM) with which the zener can
operate.
 Resistor R is the series current- limiting resistor. The meters
indicate the relative values and trends. 145
Cont’d…

a. As the input voltage increases, the output voltage remains constant (lZK<IZ< IZM)

b. As the input voltage decreases, the output voltage remains constant (l ZK<IZ< IZM). 146
Cont’d…
Example: To illustrate regulation, suppose that the lN4740 10 V zener
diode in Figure 1.52 can maintain regulation over a range of zener
current values from IZK = 0.25 mA to IZM = 100 mA. From the data sheet
of the aforementioned zener diode P D (max) = 1 W and Vz = 10 V.

Figure 1.52: Zener circuit

Solution:
For the minimum zener current, the voltage across the 220 Ω resistor is
VR = IzK*R = (0.25 mA)(220 Ω) = 55 mV
Since VR = VIN - Vz,
VIN (min) =VR + Vz = 55 mV + 10V = 10.055 V 147
Cont’d…
For the maximun1 zener current, the voltage across the 220 Ω
resistor is
VR = IZM*R = (l00 mA)(220 Ω) = 22 V
Therefore, VIN (max) = 22 V + 10 V = 32 V
 This shows that this zener diode can regulate an input voltage
from 10.055 V to 32 V and maintain an approximate 10 V
output. The output will vary slightly because of the zener
impedance, which has been neglected in these calculations.
b. Zener regulation with variable load:
 The zener diode maintains a nearly constant voltage across RL
as long as the zener current is greater than lZK and less than lZM.

148
Cont’d…

Figure 1.53: Zener regulation with variable load

 From no load to full load:
 When the output terminals of the zener regulator are open (RL
=∞), the load current is zero and all of the current is through the
zener: this is a no-load condition.
 When a load resistor (RL) is connected, part of the total current
is through the zener and part through RL.. 149
Cont’d…
 The total current through R remains essentially constant as
long as the zener is regulating.
 As RL is decreased, the load current, IL, increases and Iz
decreases. The zener diode continues to regulate the voltage
until Iz reaches its minimum value, IZK. At this point the load
current is maximum, and a full-load condition exists.
Example: Determine the minimum and the maximum load
currents for which the zener diode in Figure 1.54 will maintain
regulation. What is the minimum value of RL that can be used?
Vz = 12 V, lzK = 1 mA, and lZM = 50 mA. Assume Zz = 0 Ω and
Vz remains a constant 12 V over the range of current values,
for simplicity.

150
Cont’d…

Figure 1.54: The zener circuit

Solution:
When IL = 0 A (RL = ∞), Iz is maximum and equal to the total circuit
current IT.
IZ (max) = IT = = = 25.5 mA.

Since IZ (max) is less than IZM, 0 A is an acceptable minimum value for IL,
because the zener can handle the entire 25.5 mA. If RL is removed from
the circuit, the load current is 0A. 151
Cont’d…
IL (min) = 0 A
The maximum value of IL occurs when Iz is minimum
(Iz = IzK), so, IL(max)= IT - lzK = 25.5 mA - 1mA = 24.5 mA.
The minimum value of RL is
RL(min) = = = 490 Ω
Therefore, if RL is less than 490 Ω, RL will draw more of
the total current away from the zener and Iz will be
reduced below IzK . This will cause the zener to lose
regulation.
Regulation is maintained for any value of R L between 490
Ω and infinity.
152
Cont’d…
Zener Limiting:
 In addition to voltage regulation applications, zener diodes can
be used in ac applications to limit voltage swings to desired
levels.
 Figure 1.55 shows three basic ways the limiting action of a
zener diode can be used. Part (a) shows a zener used to limit
the positive peak of a signal voltage to the selected zener
voltage. During the negative alternation, the zener acts as a
forward-biased diode and limits the negative voltage to -0.7 V.
 When the zener is turned around, as in part (b), the negative
peak is limited by zener action and the positive voltage is
limited to +0.7 V.
 Two back-to-back zeners limit both peaks to the zener voltage
+0.7 V, as shown in part (c). 153
Cont’d…
 During the positive alternation, D2 is functioning as the zener
limiter and D1 is functioning as a forward-biased diode. During the
negative alternation, the roles are reversed.

Figure 1.55: Basic zener limiting action with sinusoidal input voltage. 154
Cont’d…
2. Varactor diodes: are also known as variable-capacitance
diodes because the junction capacitance varies with the
amount of reverse-bias voltage.
 Varactor diodes are specifically designed to take advantage of
this variable-capacitance characteristic. These devices are
commonly used in electronic tuning circuits used in
communications systems.
 A varactor is a diode that always operates in reverse-bias and
is doped to maximize the inherent capacitance of the depletion
region. The depletion region, widened by the reverse bias, acts
as a capacitor dielectric because of its nonconductive
characteristic.
 The p and n regions are conductive and act as the capacitor
plates, as illustrated in Figure 1.56.
155
Cont’d…

Figure 1.56: The reverse-biased varactor diode acts as a variable capacitor.

 The varactor diode works as follows: As the reverse-bias voltage
increases, the depletion region widens, effectively increasing the
plate separation and the dielectric thickness and thus decreasing
the capacitance.
 When the reverse-bias voltage decreases, the depletion region
narrows, thus increasing the capacitance. 156
Cont’d…
 This action is shown in Figure 1.57(a) and (b). A graph of diode
capacitance (CT) versus reverse voltage for a certain varactor is
shown in Figure 1.57(c). For this particular device, CT varies from
40 pF to slightly greater than 4 pF as VR varies from 1 V to 40 V.

Fi gure 1.57: Varactor diode capacitance varies with reverse voltage. 157
Cont’d…

Figure 1.58: Varactor diode symbol.

3. Optical diodes:
 In this section, two types of optoelectronic devices-the light-
emitting diode (LED) and the photodiode are introduced.
 As the name implies, the LED is a light emitter and the
photodiode, on the other hand, is a light detector.

158
Cont’d…
a) The Light Emitting Diodes (LED):
 The basic operation of the light-emitting diode (LED) is as
follows.
 When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn
junction from the n-type material and recombine with holes in
the p-type material. Recall that these free electrons are in the
conduction band and at a higher energy than the holes in the
valence band.
 When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons
release energy in the form of heat and light.
 A large exposed surface area on one layer of the semi
conductive material permits the photons to be emitted as
visible light.
159
Cont’d…
 This process, called electroluminescence, is illustrated in
Figure 1.60.
 Various impurities are added during the doping process to
establish the wavelength of the emitted light.
 The wavelength determines the color of the light and if it
is visible or infrared (IR).

Figure 1.59: Symbol of LED

160
Cont’d…

Figure 1.60: Electroluminescence in a forward biased LED

 The forward voltage across an LED is considerably greater
than for a silicon diode. Typically the maximum VF for LEDs
is between 1.2 V and 3.2 V, depending on the device.
 Reverse breakdown for an LED is much less than for a silicon
rectifier diode (3 V to 10 V is typical).
161
Cont’d…
 The LED emits light in response to a sufficient forward
current, as shown in Figure 1.61(a).
 The amount of power output translated into light is directly
proportional to the forward current, as indicated in Figure
1.61(b). An increase in IF corresponds proportionally to an
increase in light output.

Figure 1.61: Basic operation of LED

162
Cont’d…
b. The Photodiode:
o The photodiode is a device that operates in reverse bias as
shown in Figure 40(a), where Iλ is the reverse current.
o The photodiode has a small transparent window that allows
light to strike the pn junction.

163
Cont’d…
o A photodiode differs from a rectifier diode in that when its pn
junction is exposed to light, the reverse current increases with
the light intensity.
o When there is no incident light, the reverse current, Iλ is almost
negligible and is called the dark current. An increase in the
amount of light intensity produces an increase in the reverse
current. Figure 41 shows the effect of light on a given
photodiode.

164
Cont’d…
4. Schottky diodes
 The junction that is formed when a metal, such as Al
(aluminum), is brought in to contact with moderately doped N-
type silicon is called a metal-semiconductor (MS) junction.
 Like PN junction, the MS junction presents a low resistance to
current flow when it is forward biased and high resistance
when reverse biased.
 In a MS junction carrier’s diffusion consists only of electrons
diffusing from the semiconductor to the metal.
 The electrons accumulate at the metal surface and the
depilation region exists only in semiconductor side of the
junction.

165
Cont’d…
 Metal – semiconductor junctions are able to respond more rapidly
in switching application than PN junction diode because only
majority carriers (electrons in the N – type silicon) are involved in
the process.
 Diodes formed and used in this way are called Schottky barrier
diodes.

166
Figure 1.62 construction and schematic symbol for a Schottky diode
 Cont’d…
 A metal-semiconductor junction with Schottky - diode
properties can also be formed by bonding gold (Au) to p- type
germanium.
 This device is called a gold bonded diode and responds very
rapidly in switching applications.
 These diodes are designed to have a very fast switching time
which makes them a great diode for digital circuit applications.
They are very common in computers because of their ability to be
switched on and off so quickly.

167
168
?