MAT 122: INTRO TO STATISTICS

LECTURE TWO
 Statistical data and Sources
• Primary Data: Is data or information collected directly from the field
by a researcher. Primary data is normally not arranged so it is also
called raw data.

• Secondary Data: is data taken from other people’s data. Eg. GLSS
data

• TYPES OF DATA
• Time Series Data: is data collected over time of a variable/variables
to establish a relationship among the variables. Eg yearly data of
maize yields

Years 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Output 150,000 100000 140000 170,000 240000 280000

(metric
 Cross sectional data
Cross Sectional Data: this is data collected over several
variables at a point in time. E.g. the income of maize farmers
in 1999.

Farmer Income in GH₵ in 1999

1 2000
2 4500
3 3500
4 5000
 Panel/ Pooled data
• Panel/ Pooled Data: This is data collected over a
time period and across sample units. E.g. the
income of cocoa farmers from 1970- 2000

Farmer 1970 1971 ………… 2000

1 1000 2500 - 5000
2 500 2000 - 6500
3 2500 2000 - 4000
4 4000 3500 - 7000
 Methods of Presenting /Describing Data
• Pictograms
• In pictograms the data is simply represented by pictures or items
they represent, the population of UDS; 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98
400 600 800

• Using a pictogram to present this data: key: ♀= 100 people

• 1995/96 ♀♀♀♀

• 1996/97 ♀♀♀♀♀♀

• 1997/98 ♀♀♀♀♀♀♀♀
 Frequency Distribution Tables
• Frequency Distribution Tables
• This is the grouping of data into categories showing
the number of observations in each category.

• 20 30 30 40 80 60 80 80 90 70
• 10 10 70 50 50 40 70 20 60 80
• 30 20 30 40 50 60 60 40 100 30
• 30 10 90 40 30 40 50 30 30 20
The above raw scores of the forty UDS students are represented in the
frequency table below:

Frequency Table showing the marks of 40 students at U.D.S

Marks Number of students
1-10 5
11-20 4
21-30 9
31-40 6
41-50 3
51-60 3
61-70 3
71-80 4
81-90 2
91-100 1
 Some Terminologies
• Array: Is an ordering of the observations/data from the
smallest to the largest or vice versa; for example, 2, 4,
6, 8 (ascending order) or 8, 6, 4, 2 (descending order).

• Range: The difference between the largest and the

smallest values or numbers. Considering the array
above, the largest value is 8 and the smallest is 2. The
range is 6

• Class Frequency: The number of items in a particular

class.
• Class Intervals or Class Limits: this is merely the length of a class /
range of values it can contain.eg 1-10 or 91-100 . 1 and 91are the
lower class limits whilst 10 and 100 are the upper class limits.

• Class Mark or Class Midpoints: Is the mark that is obtained by adding

the upper and lower class limits and dividing the total by 2. In this
case,

• Eg ,the class midpoint is,( 1+10)/2= 5.5 . It is denoted by X. The

midpoint of a class is also called Class Mark.

• Class Boundaries: Are obtained by subtracting 0.5 from the lower

limit and add 0.5 to the Upper limits. Examples are 1- 0.5=0.5 and
10+0.5=11.5.
 Example

• The following are grades of 25 students in a

statistics examination. Represent the information in
a frequency table.

• 11, 12, 19, 30, 15, 11, 19, 33, 32, 31

• 13, 15, 14, 15, 20, 21, 27, 24, 28, 11
• 22, 23, 34, 13, 11
 Graphical Representation of Frequencies
• Histogram → a graph that displays the data using
contiguous vertical bars ( unless the frequency of a
class is zero) of various heights to represent the
frequency of the classes.

• A histogram depicts the number of frequencies in

each class in the form of bars

• The class boundaries is on the x –axis and the

frequencies is on the y- axis.
 BAR CHART OR BAR GRAPH
• In a bar graph each bar represents the number of
data elements in a certain category. All the bars
are the same width and are separated from each
other.
• Frequency Polygon: is a graph resulting from plotting the
class frequency against the class mid points.

• Example 4
• These are marks scored by 34 students in Agronomy
Department of U.D.S.

• 1, 6, 4, 20, 7, 11, 8, 11, 16, 10, 12, 15, 12, 13

• 18, 14, 17, 16, 17, 16, 17, 18, 21, 27, 24, 25
• 22, 22, 11, 19, 31, 30, 35, 34

• Draw a frequency polygon of the above observation

Frequency Polygon
Pie Charts/Circle Chart
• In a pie chart a circle is used to depict or portray the entire
population.
• The first step is to draw a circle and divide it into different sections
which must add up to 100 percent.
• Degrees=f/n *360 Percentages= f/n * 100%
• Where f = frequency and n = sum of the frequencies
 Cumulative Frequency Polygon / Ogive
• Cumulative frequency is the total number of cases
(frequencies) that have added up to be more than or less
than a particular figure/score.

• For instance, an accountant may want to find out the

number of workers whose salaries are more or less than
GH¢1000.

• In this case, s/he develops a cumulative frequency

distribution and represents it on a graph called a
Cumulative Frequency Polygon or an Ogive. The Ogive
enables him/her to determine observations that lie above
or below GH¢1000.
• Two cumulative frequency polygons may be
distinguished:

• A less than; and

• A more than

• The computation of a less than cumulative

frequency is based on the upper class boundaries or
the exact limits whilst the more than cumulative
frequency is calculated using the lower class
boundaries
 A less than cumulative distribution is shown below
class Class frequency Monthly salaries Cumulative Class boundary from
frequency 600-7999 lane down
Less 599.50 0 Less than 599.50 0 0
600-799 3 Less than 799.50 Add 3 599.50-799.50
800-999 7 ,, ,, 10 799.50-999.50
999.50
1,000-1,199 11 ,, ,, 21 999.50-1,199.50
1,199.50
1,200-1,399 22 ,, ,, 43 1,199-1,399.50
1,399.50
1,400-1,599 40 ,, ,, 83 1,399.50-1,599.50
1,599.50
1,600-1,799 24 ,, ,, 107 1,599.50-1,799.50
1,799.50
1,800-1,999 9 ,, ,, 116 1,799.50-1,999.50
1,999.50
2000-2,199 2 ,, ,, 120 1.999.50-2,199.50
2,199.50
120
A less-than cumulative frequency ogive showing monthly rentals (in GH
¢)
 Stem and Leaf Plots
• A stem and leaf plot is a data plot that uses part of
the data as the stem and part of the data value as
the leave to form groups or classes.

• It has an advantage over grouped frequency

distribution of retaining the actual data while
showing them in a graphical form.

• It is a method for sorting /organizing and graphing

data
• At an outpatient testing center , the number of
cardiograms performed each day for 20 days is
shown. Construct a stem and leaf plot for the data.
• 25 31 20 32 13
• 14 43 02 57 23
• 36 32 33 32 44
• 32 52 44 51 45

• Step1: arrange the data in order

• Step 2 : separate the data according to the first digit
.
• Step 3 : use the first digit as the stem and the
trailing digit as the leaf
• 0 2
• 1 34
• 2 035
• 3 122236
• 4 3445
• 5 127
 TAKE HOME ASSIGNMENT
• For 108 randomly selected college applicants, the following
frequency distribution for their entrance examinations was obtained.
Construct a histogram, frequency polygon and an ogive from the
information

Class limits frequency

90-98 6
99-107 22
108-116 43
117-125 28
126-134 9
• Applicants who scored above 107 need not enroll for the
development program. In this group how many students need not
enroll in the developmental programme?
•THANK YOU