UNDERSTANDIN Lecturer: Ms.

G PSYCHOLOGY Aliza Zafar

Definition: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Psychology and Science: Basic scientific methods apply here as any where
else:
 Empirical evidence through scientific observation, measurement
 Hypothesis testing
 Experimentation
 Theoretical explanation
Pseudopsychology?
Any false and unscientific system of beliefs and practices that is
offered as an explanation of behavior.
 HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE
SCHOOLS OF
THOUGHTS IN
PSYCHOLOGY
STRUCTURALISM
Titchener called Wundt’s ideas structuralism and tried to analyze the
structure of mental life into basic “elements” or “building blocks.”
Structuralists tried, mostly by using introspection. But, introspection
proved to be a poor way to answer most questions, because no matter
how systematic the observations, the structuralists frequently
disagreed. And when they did, there was no way to settle differences.
Eg: If you and a friend both introspect on your perceptions of an
apple and end up listing different basic elements, who would be right?
Despite such limitations, “looking inward” is still used as one source
of insight in studies of hypnosis, meditation, problem solving, moods,
and many other topics.
GESTALT
PSYCHOLOGY
German psychologist Max Wertheimer (VERT-hi-mer) said, to
analyze psychological events into pieces, or “elements,” as the
structuralists did.
Studied thinking, learning, and perception as whole units, not by
analyzing experiences into parts.
“The whole is greater than the sum of its parts”
EARLY DEVELOPMENT
OF PSYCHOLOGY
 FIELDS OF
PSYCHOLOGY AND
THEIR APPLICATION
 RESEARCH
METHODS IN
PSYCHOLOGY
 PSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH
Many fields, such as history, law, art, and business, are also interested
in human behavior. How is psychology different? Psychology’s great
strength is that it uses scientific observation to systematically
answer questions about behavior.
More often, questions go unanswered for lack of a suitable research
method: a systematic process for answering scientific questions.

Psychology’s Goals:
Attempts to describe, predict, control and explain/understand
thought and behavior.
HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about, or explanation of,
an event or relationship. It is a testable guess or educated guess
about behavior. Eg: “Frustration encourages aggression.”
To test this, participants will be made to feel frustrated and
then it will be measured if they are aggression or not.
THEORY BUILDING
Theory: A system of ideas designed to interrelate
concepts and facts in a way that summarizes existing
data and predicts future observations.
Theory acts as a map of knowledge, and summarize
observations, explain them, and guide further
research.
Psychologists use the logic of science to answer
questions about behavior. Specific hypotheses can be
tested in a variety of ways, including controlled
experiments, naturalistic observation, correlational
studies, clinical studies, and the survey method.
Psychologists revise their theories to reflect the
evidence they gather. New or revised theories then
lead to new observations, problems, and hypotheses.
PSYCHOLOGY
EXPERIMENT
Here, cause meets effect.
In an experiment, two or more groups of subjects are treated differently
with respect to the independent variable. In all other ways they are
treated the same. Extraneous variables are equated for all groups.
The effect of the independent variable/s on some behavior (dependent
variable) is then measured. In controlled experiment, the independent
variable is the only possible cause for any effect noted in the dependent
variable. This allows clear cause-and effect connections to be identified
Experiment: A formal trial undertaken to confirm or disconfirm a
hypothesis about cause and effect.
Experimental subjects: Humans (also referred to as participants) or
animals whose behavior is investigated in an experiment.
EVALUATING RESULTS
Statistical significance: Experimental results that would rarely occur
by chance alone.
Meta-analysis: A statistical technique for combining the results of
many studies on the same subject.
Research participant bias: Changes in the behavior of research
participants caused by the unintended influence of their own
expectations.
Double-Blinding-Placebo effect: Changes in behavior due to
participant’s expectations that a drug (or other treatment) will have
some effect. Placebo is an inactive substance given in the place of a
drug in psychological research or by physicians who wish to treat a
complaint by suggestion.
CORRELATION AND
CAUSATION
A positive correlation shows that higher scores in one measure are matched
by higher scores in the other.
Eg: there is a moderate positive correlation between high school grades and
college grades; students who do well in high school tend to do well in college
(and the reverse)
In a negative correlation, higher scores in the first measure are associated
with lower scores in the second.
Eg: a moderate negative correlation between the number of hours that students
play computer games and grades.
Correlation does not demonstrate causation (a cause-effect relationship)!
Eg: students who aren’t interested in their classes have more time for computer
games; their lack of study and lower grades would both result from disinterest,
not from excess game playing. Because one thing appears to be related to
another does not mean that a cause-and-effect connection exists.
 COMPARISON OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH METHODS
ETHICS
 ETHICAL ISSUES
Most psychologists take pride in following a professional code
that stresses on:
(1) high levels of competence, integrity, and responsibility
(2) respect for people’s rights to privacy, dignity,
confidentiality, and personal freedom; and, above all
(3) protection of the client’s welfare