Chapter 10

Vapor and Combined Power Cycles

Study Guide in PowerPoint

to accompany

Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 6th edition

by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles
The temperature, pressure, and specific volume of a
substance at the critical point are called, respectively, the
critical temperature Tcr, critical pressure Pcr, and critical
specific volume vcr.

2
3
4
We consider power cycles where the working fluid undergoes a phase change. The
best example of this cycle is the steam power cycle where water (steam) is the
working fluid.

Carnot Vapor Cycle

5
 The heat engine may be composed of the following components.
Carnot Vapor Cycle Using Steam
700

600

500

6000 kPa
400

T [C]
300 2
3 100 kPa

200

100 1 4
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

s [kJ/kg-K]

The working fluid, steam (water), undergoes a thermodynamic cycle from 1-2-3-4-1.
6
The cycle is shown on the following T-s diagram.
 Carnot Vapor Cycle Using Steam
700

600

500

6000 kPa
400

T [C]
300 2
3 100 kPa

200

100 1 4
0
0 .0 1 .0 2 .0 3 .0 4 .0 5 .0 6 .0 7 .0 8 .0 9 .0 1 0 .0

s [kJ/kg-K]

The thermal efficiency of this cycle is given as

Wnet Q
 th , Carnot   1  out
Qin Qin
TL
 1
TH
Note the effect of TH and TL on th, Carnot.
•The larger the TH the larger the th, Carnot
•The smaller the TL the larger the th, Carnot
7
To increase the thermal efficiency in any power cycle, we try to increase the
maximum temperature at which heat is added. Or decrease the ???????

Reasons why the Carnot cycle is not used:

•Pumping process 1-2 requires the pumping of a mixture of saturated liquid and
saturated vapor at state 1 and the delivery of a saturated liquid at state 2.
•To superheat the steam to take advantage of a higher temperature, elaborate
controls are required to keep TH constant while the steam expands and does work.

To resolve the difficulties associated with the Carnot cycle, the Rankine cycle was
devised.
Rankine Cycle

The simple Rankine cycle has the same component layout as the Carnot cycle
shown above. The simple Rankine cycle continues the condensation process 4-1
until the saturated liquid line is reached.

Ideal Rankine Cycle Processes

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression in pump
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in turbine
8
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in condenser
The T-s diagram for the Rankine cycle is given below. Locate the processes for heat
transfer and work on the diagram.
Rankine Vapor Power Cycle Carnot Vapor Cycle Using Steam
50 0 700

6000 kPa 600

40 0
500
3
30 0 400 6000 kPa
T [C]

T [C]
300 2 100 kPa
20 0 3
10 kPa 200
10 0 2
100 1 4
4
0
1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

s [kJ/kg-K] s [kJ/kg-K]

Example 10-1
Compute the thermal efficiency of an ideal Rankine cycle for which steam leaves
the boiler as superheated vapor at 6 MPa, 350oC, and is condensed at 10 kPa.

We use the power system and T-s diagram shown above.

P2 = P3 = 6 MPa = 6000 kPa
T3 = 350oC
P1 = P4 = 10 kPa
9
Pump

The pump work is obtained from the conservation of mass and energy for steady-flow
but neglecting potential and kinetic energy changes and assuming the pump is
adiabatic and reversible.
m 1  m 2  m
m 1h1  W pump  m 2 h2
W pump  m (h2  h1 )

Since the pumping process involves an incompressible liquid, state 2 is in the

compressed liquid region, we use a second method to find the pump work or the h
across the pump.

Recall the property relation:

dh = T ds + v dP

Since the ideal pumping process 1-2 is isentropic, ds = 0.

10
 The incompressible liquid assumption allows v  v1  const .
h2  h1  v1 ( P2  P1 )

The pump work is calculated from W pump  m (h2  h1 )  mv

 1 ( P2  P1 )
W pump
w pump   v1 ( P2  P1 )
Using the steam tables m

 kJ
h  h  191.81
P1  10 kPa   w pump  v1 ( P2  P1 )
1 f
kg
 m3 kJ
Sat. liquid   m3  0.00101 (6000  10) kPa 3
v  v f  0.00101 kg m kPa
 1 kg
kJ
 6.05
kg
Now, h2 is found from
h2  wpump  h1
kJ kJ
 6.05  191.81
kg kg
kJ
 197.86
kg
11
Boiler to find the heat supplied in the boiler, we apply the steady-flow conservation of
mass and energy to the boiler. If we neglect the potential and kinetic energies, and
note that no work is done on the steam in the boiler, then
m 2  m 3  m
m 2 h2  Q in  m 3h3
Q in  m (h3  h2 )
We find the properties at state 3 from the superheated tables as

 kJ
h  3043.9
P3  6000 kPa   3 kg

T3  350 C  
o
kJ
s3  6.3357
 kg  K
The heat transfer per unit mass is
Q in
qin   h3  h2
m
kJ
 (3043.9  197.86)
kg
kJ
 2845.1 12
kg
 Turbine The turbine work is obtained from the application of the conservation of
mass and energy for steady flow. We assume the process is adiabatic and reversible
and neglect changes in kinetic and potential energies.
m 3  m 4  m
m h  W  m h
3 3 turb 4 4

W turb  m (h3  h4 )
We find the properties at state 4 from the steam tables by noting s4 = s3 = 6.3357
kJ/kg-K and asking three questions.
kJ kJ
at P4  10kPa : s f  0.6492 ; sg  8.1488
kg  K kg  K
is s4  s f ?
is s f  s4  sg ? sf>s4>sg
is sg  s4 ?
s4  s f  x4 s fg
s4  s f 6.3357  0.6492
x4    0.758
s fg 7.4996
13
 h4  h f  x4 h fg
kJ kJ
 191.81  0.758(2392.1)
kg kg
kJ
 2005.0
kg
The turbine work per unit mass is wturb  h3  h4
kJ
 (3043.9  2005.0)
kg
kJ
 1038.9
kg
wnet  wturb  wpump
The net work done by the cycle is
kJ
 (1038.9  6.05)
kg
kJ
 1032.8
kJ kg
1032.8
The thermal efficiency is w kg
th  net 
qin kJ
2845.1
kg
 0.363 or 36.3% 14
Extra Assignment
For the above example, find the heat rejected by the cycle and evaluate the thermal
efficiency from
wnet qout
 th   1
qin qin

15
 Ways to improve the simple Rankine cycle
efficiency:
•Superheat the vapor
Average temperature is higher during heat
addition.
Moisture is reduced at turbine exit (we want x4 in
the above example > 85 percent).
•Increase boiler pressure (for fixed maximum
temperature)
Availability of steam is higher at higher pressures.
Moisture is increased at turbine exit.
•Lower condenser pressure
Less energy is lost to surroundings.
Moisture is increased at turbine exit.

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17
(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle. (b)
The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.
EXAMPLE 10–2 An Actual Steam Power Cycle .A steam power plant operates on
the cycle shown in Fig.. If the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 87percent and
the isentropic efficiency of the pump is 85 percent, determine (a) the thermal
efficiency of the cycle and (b) the net power output of the plant for a mass flow
18
rate of 15 kg/s.
19
20
Reheat Cycle How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher
boiler pressures without facing the problem of excessive moisture at the final
stages of the turbine? Two possibilities come to mind:
1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures before it enters the turbine.
2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in
between.
As the boiler pressure is increased in the simple Rankine cycle, not only does the
thermal efficiency increase, but also the turbine exit moisture increases. The reheat
cycle allows the use of higher boiler pressures and provides a means to keep the
turbine exit moisture (x > 0.85 to 0.90) at an acceptable level.

Let’s sketch the T-s diagram for the reheat cycle. 21

s
 Component Process First Law Result
Boiler Const. P qin = (h3 - h2) + (h5 -
h4)
Turbine Isentropic wout = (h3 - h4) + (h5 -
h6)
Condenser Const. P qout = (h6 - h1)
Pump Isentropic w = (h2 - h1) = v1(P2
wnet in
The
- Pthermal
1)
efficiency is given by  th 
qin
(h3 - h4 ) + (h5 - h6 ) - (h2 - h1 )

(h3 - h2 ) + (h5 - h4 )
h6  h1
 1
(h3 - h2 ) + (h5 - h4 )

22
 Example 10-2

Compare the thermal efficiency and turbine-exit quality at the condenser

pressure for a simple Rankine cycle and the reheat cycle when the boiler pressure is
4 MPa, the boiler exit temperature is 400oC, and the condenser pressure is 10 kPa.
The reheat takes place at 0.4 MPa and the steam leaves the reheater at 400 oC.

th xturb exit

No Reheat 35.3% 0.8159
With Reheat 35.9% 0.9664

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Regenerative Cycle

To improve the cycle thermal efficiency, the average temperature at which heat is
added must be increased.

One way to do this is to allow the steam leaving the boiler to expand the steam in the
turbine to an intermediate pressure. A portion of the steam is extracted from the
turbine and sent to a regenerative heater to preheat the condensate before entering
the boiler. This approach increases the average temperature at which heat is added
in the boiler. However, this reduces the mass of steam expanding in the lower-
pressure stages of the turbine, and, thus, the total work done by the turbine. The
work that is done is done more efficiently.

The preheating of the condensate is done in a combination of open and closed

heaters. In the open feedwater heater, the extracted steam and the condensate are
physically mixed. In the closed feedwater heater, the extracted steam and the
condensate are not mixed.

24
Cycle with an open feedwater heater

25
 Rankine Steam Power Cycle with an Open Feedwater Heater
600

3000 kPa
500
5
500 kPa
400

T [C]
300
10 kPa
6
200 4

2 3
100
7

0
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

s [kJ/kg-K]

Cycle with a closed feedwater heater with steam trap to condenser

26
Let’s sketch the T-s diagram for this closed feedwater heater cycle.
T

27
Cycle with a closed feedwater heater with pump to boiler pressure

28
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle
with a closed feedwater heater.

29
30
a steam power plant that operates on an ideal reheat–regenerative Rankine cycle with
one open feedwater heater, one closed feedwater heater, and one reheater.

31
Let’s sketch the T-s diagram for this closed feedwater heater cycle.
T

Consider the regenerative cycle with the open feedwater heater.

To find the fraction of mass to be extracted from the turbine, apply the first law to the
feedwater heater and assume, in the ideal case, that the water leaves the feedwater
heater as a saturated liquid. (In the case of the ideal closed feedwater heater, the
feedwater leaves the heater at a temperature equal to the saturation temperature at
the extraction pressure.)

Conservation of mass for the open feedwater heater:

32
Let y  m
 6 / m 5 be the fraction of mass extracted from the turbine for the feedwater
heater.
m in  m out
m 6  m 2  m 3  m 5
m 2  m 5  m 6  m 5 (1  y )
Conservation of energy for the open feedwater heater:
E in  E out
m 6h6  m 2 h2  m 3h3
ym 5h6  (1  y )m 5h2  m 5h3
h3  h2
y
h6  h2

Example 10-3
An ideal regenerative steam power cycle operates so that steam enters the turbine at
3 MPa, 500oC, and exhausts at 10 kPa. A single open feedwater heater is used and
operates at 0.5 MPa. Compute the cycle thermal efficiency.

The important properties of water for this cycle are shown below.
33
States with selected properties Selected saturation properties

State P T h s P Tsat vf hf
kPa C kJ/kg kJ/kg-K kPa C 3
/kg kJ/kg
m

1 10 10 45.81 0.00101 191.8

2 500 500 151.83 0.00109 640.1

3 500 3000 233.85 0.00122 1008.3

4 3000

5 3000 500 3457.2 7.2359

6 500 2942.6 7.2359

7 10 2292.7 7.2359

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The work for pump 1 is calculated from
w pump 1  v1 ( P2  P1 )
m3 kJ
 0.00101 (500  10) kPa 3
kg m kPa
kJ
 0.5
kg
Now, h2 is found from
h2  w pump 1  h1
kJ kJ
 0.5  1918
.
kg kg
kJ
 192.3
kg

35
The fraction of mass extracted from the turbine for the open feedwater heater is
obtained from the energy balance on the open feedwater heater, as shown above.
kJ
(640.1  192.3)
h h kg
y 3 2   0.163
h6  h2 (2942.6  192.3) kJ
kg
This means that for each kg of steam entering the turbine, 0.163 kg is extracted for
the feedwater heater.

The work for pump 2 is calculated from

w pump 2  v3 ( P4  P3 )
m3 kJ
 0.00109 (3000  500) kPa 3
kg m kPa
kJ
 2.7
kg

36
Now, h4 is found from the energy balance for pump 2 for a unit of mass flowing
through the pump.
Eout  Ein
h4  wpump 2  h3
kJ kJ
 2.7  640.1
kg kg
kJ
 642.8
kg
Apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the isentropic turbine.
Ein  Eout
m5 h5  W turb  m6 h6  m7 h7
W turb  m 5 [h5  yh6  (1  y )h7 ]
W turb
wturb   h5  yh6  (1  y )h7
m5
kJ
 [3457.2  (0.163)(2942.1)  (1  0.163)(2292.7)]
kg
kJ
 1058.6 37
kg
The net work done by the cycle is
W
net  Wturb  W pump 1  W pump 2

5 wnet  m5 wturb  m1 w pump 1  m3 w pump 2

m
5 wnet  m5 wturb  m5 (1  y ) w pump 1  m5 w pump 2
m
wnet  wturb  (1  y ) wpump 1  wpump 2
kJ
 [1058.6  (1  0.163)(0.5)  2.7]
kg
kJ
 1055.5
kg
Apply the steady-flow conservation of mass and energy to the boiler.
m 4  m 5
m 4 h4  Q in  m 5h5
Q in  m 5 (h5  h4 )
Q in
qin   h5  h4
m 5

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The heat transfer per unit mass entering the turbine at the high pressure, state 5, is
qin  h5  h4
kJ kJ
 (3457.2  642.8)  2814.4
kg kg
The thermal efficiency is
kJ
1055.5
w kg
th  net 
qin kJ
2814.4
kg
 0.375 or 37.5%
If these data were used for a Rankine cycle with no regeneration, then th = 35.6
percent. Thus, the one open feedwater heater operating at 0.5 MPa increased the
thermal efficiency by 5.3 percent. However, note that the mass flowing through the
lower-pressure turbine stages has been reduced by the amount extracted for the
feedwater and the net work output for the regenerative cycle is about 10 percent
lower than the standard Rankine cycle based on a unit of mass entering the turbine at
the highest pressure.

39
Below is a plot of cycle thermal efficiency versus the open feedwater heater pressure.
The feedwater heater pressure that makes the cycle thermal efficiency a maximum is
about 400 kPa.
th vs OFWH Pre s s ure
0.376

0.374

0.372

0.370
th 0.368

0.366

0.364

0.362

0.360
0 450 900 1350 1800 2250
P o fw h [kPa]

40
Below is a plot of cycle net work per unit mass flow at state 5 and the fraction of mass
y extracted for the feedwater heater versus the open feedwater heater pressure.
Clearly the net cycle work decreases and the fraction of mass extracted increases
with increasing extraction pressure. Why does the fraction of mass extracted
increase with increasing extraction pressure?
w ne t and y v s OFWH Pre s s ure
1200 0 .2 5

0 .2 3
1150
0 .2 0

1100 0 .1 8

0 .1 5
w ne t kJ/kg

1050
0 .1 3

y
1000 0 .1 0

0 .0 8
950
0 .0 5

900 0 .0 3
0 450 900 1350 1800 2250
P o fw h [kPa]

41
Placement of Feedwater Heaters

The extraction pressures for multiple feedwater heaters are chosen to maximize the
cycle efficiency. As a rule of thumb, the extraction pressures for the feedwater
heaters are chosen such that the saturation temperature difference between each
component is about the same.
Tcond to FWH  Tboiler to FWH , etc.
Example 10-4

An ideal regenerative steam power cycle operates so that steam enters the turbine at
3 MPa, 500oC, and exhausts at 10 kPa. Two closed feedwater heaters are to be
used. Select starting values for the feedwater heater extraction pressures.
Steam
400
T [C]

300

3000 kPa
233.9 C 815 kPa
200   C
136.2 kPa
  C
100
  C
45.85 C
45.8
10 kPa
1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
42
s [kJ/kg-K]
Deviation from Actual Cycles

•Piping losses--frictional effects reduce the available energy content of the steam.
•Turbine losses--turbine isentropic (or adiabatic) efficiency.
T P3
3

P4
4a
4s

wactual h3  h4 a
 turb  
wisentropic h3  h4 s
The actual enthalpy at the turbine exit (needed for the energy analysis of the next
component) is
h4 a  h3   turb (h3  h4 s )

43
•Pump losses--pump isentropic (or adiabatic) efficiency.
2a
T 2s P2

P1
1

s
wisentropic h2 s  h1
 pump  
wactual h2 a  h1
The actual enthalpy at the pump exit (needed for the energy analysis of the next
component) is
1
h2 a  h1  (h2 s  h1 )
 pump
•Condenser losses--relatively small losses that result from cooling the condensate
below the saturation temperature in the condenser.

44
The following examples you should try on your own.
Regenerative Feedwater Heater problem

Consider an ideal steam regenerative Rankine cycle with two feedwater heaters, one
closed and one open. Steam enters the turbine at 10 MPa and 500 C and
exhausts to the condenser at 10 kPa. Steam is extracted from the turbine at 0.7
MPa for the closed feedwater heater and 0.3 MPa for the open one. The extracted
steam leaves the closed feedwater heater and is subsequently throttled to the
open feedwater heater. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to
saturation lines, and using only the data presented in the data tables given below
determine

a) the fraction of steam leaving the boiler that is extracted at 0.3 MPa z=0.1425
b) the fraction of steam leaving the boiler that is extracted at 0.7 MPa y=0.06213
c) the heat transfer from the condenser per unit mass leaving the boiler q_out=1509
kJ/kg
d) the heat transfer to the boiler per unit mass leaving the boiler q_in=2677 kJ/kg
e) the mass flow rate of steam through the boiler for a net power output of 250 MW
m_dot=214.1 kg/s
f) the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Eta_th=0.4363

45
46
Cogeneration Plant

A cogeneration plant is to generate power and process heat. Consider an ideal

cogeneration steam plant. Steam enters the turbine from the boiler at 7 MPa,
500 C and a mass flow rate of 30 kg/s. One-fourth of the steam is extracted from
the turbine at 600-kPa pressure for process heating. The remainder of the steam
continues to expand and exhausts to the condenser at 10 kPa. The steam
extracted for the process heater is condensed in the heater and mixed with the
feedwater at 600 kPa. The mixture is pumped to the boiler pressure of 7 MPa.
Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine

a) the heat transfer from the process heater per unit mass leaving the boiler
Qdot,process = 15,774 kW.
b) the net power produced by the cycle. Wdot,net = 32,848 kW.
c) the utilization factor of the plant Qdot,in = 92,753 kW, Utilization factor = 52.4%.

47
48
Combined Gas-Steam Power Cycle

Example of the Combined Brayton and Rankine Cycles

(a) Explain what’s happening in the various process for the hardware shown below.

49
P=210 M Watt

50
Determine the exergy destruction associated with each of the processes of the Rankine
cycle described in Prob. 10–16, assuming a source temperature of 1500 K and a sink
temperature of 290 K.

51
P=210 M Watt

52
53
54
55
Example :Consider a steam power plant that operates on an ideal reheat–regenerative
Rankine cycle with one open feedwater heater, one closed feedwater heater,
and one reheater. Steam enters the turbine at 15 MPa and 600°C and is condensed in
the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Some steam is extracted from the turbine at 4
MPa for the closed feedwater heater, and the remaining steam is reheated at the same
pressure to 600°C. The extracted steam is completely condensed in the heater and is
pumped to 15 Mpa before it mixes with the feedwater at the same pressure. Steam for
the open feedwater heater is extracted from the low-pressure turbine at a pressure of
0.5 MPa. Determine the fractions of steam extracted from the turbine as well as the
thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Kinetic and potential
energy changes are negligible. 3 In both open and closed feedwater heaters,
feedwater is heated to the saturation temperature at the feedwater heater
pressure. (Note that this is a conservative assumption since extracted steam
enters the closed feedwater heater at 376°C and the saturation temperature
at the closed feedwater pressure of 4 MPa is 250°C).
Analysis The schematic of the power plant and the T-s diagram of the cycle
are shown in Fig. The power plant operates on the ideal reheat– regenerative
Rankine cycle and thus the pumps and the turbines are isentropic; there are no
pressure drops in the boiler, reheater, condenser, and feedwater heaters; and
steam leaves the condenser and the feedwater heaters as saturated liquid.
The enthalpies at the various states and the pump work per unit mass of
fluid flowing through them are
56
The fractions of steam extracted are determined from the mass and energy balances of
the feedwater heaters: Closed feedwater heater:

Open feedwater heater:

57
58
EXAMPLE .A steam power plant operates on an ideal reheat– regenerative Rankine
cycle and has a net power output of 80 MW. Steam enters the high-pressure turbine at
10 MPa and 550°C and leaves at 0.8 MPa. Some steam is extracted at this pressure to
heat the feedwater in an open feedwater heater.The rest of the steam is reheated to
500°C and is expanded in the low-pressure turbine to the condenser pressure of 10 kPa.
Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the
mass flow rate of steam through the boiler and (b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle,(c)
Determine the exergy destruction associated with the reheating and regeneration
processes Assume a source temperature of 1800 K and a sink temperature of 290 K.

59
60
C:

61