Chapter 9: Vapor and Combined Power Cycles

We consider power cycles where the working fluid undergoes a phase

change. The best example of this cycle is the steam power cycle where
water (steam) is the working fluid.

Carnot Vapor Cycle

Heat source
TH > TL

QH

Heat
engine
Wnet

QL
Heat Sink
TL

The heat engine may be composed of the following components.

Steam Power Cycle

Boiler Turbine
3 Wturb

QI n
4

Pump
Condenser
2 Qout

Wp

Chapter 9-1
The working fluid, steam (water), undergoes a thermodynamic cycle from
1-2-3-4-1. The cycle is shown on the following T-s diagram.

Carnot Vapor Cycle Using Steam

700

600

500

6000 kPa
400
T [C]

300 2 100 kPa

3
200

100 1 4
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

s [kJ/kg-K]

The thermal efficiency of this cycle is given as

Wnet Q
η th , Carnot = = 1 − out
Qin Qin
T
= 1− L
TH

Note the effect of TH and TL on ηth, Carnot.

• The larger the TH the larger the ηth, Carnot
• The smaller the TL the larger the ηth, Carnot

Chapter 9-2
To increase the thermal efficiency in any power cycle, we try to increase the
maximum temperature at which heat is added.

Reasons why the Carnot cycle is not used:

• Pumping process 1-2 requires the pumping of a mixture of saturated
liquid and saturated vapor at state 1 and the delivery of a saturated liquid
at state 2.

• To superheat the steam to take advantage of a higher temperature,

elaborate controls are required to keep TH constant while the steam
expands and does work.

To resolve the difficulties associated with the Carnot cycle, the Rankine
cycle was devised.

Rankine Cycle

The simple Rankine cycle has the same component layout as the Carnot
cycle shown above. The simple Rankine cycle continues the condensation
process 4-1 until the saturated liquid line is reached.

Ideal Rankine Cycle Processes

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression in pump
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in condenser

The T-s diagram for the Rankine cycle is given below. Locate the processes
for heat transfer and work on the diagram.

Chapter 9-3
 Rankine Vapor Power Cycle
500

6000 kPa
400

3
300
T [C]

200

10 kPa
100 2
4
0
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

s [kJ/kg-K]

Example 9-1

Compute the thermal efficiency of an ideal Rankine cycle for which steam
leaves the boiler as superheated vapor at 6 MPa, 350oC, and is condensed at
10 kPa.

We use the power system and T-s diagram shown above.

P2 = P3 = 6 MPa = 6000 kPa
T3 = 350oC
P1 = P4 = 10 kPa

Pump

The pump work is obtained from the conservation of mass and energy for
steady-flow but neglecting potential and kinetic energy changes and
assuming the pump is adiabatic and reversible.
m! 1 = m! 2 = m!
m! 1h1 + W! pump = m! 2 h2
W! pump = m! (h2 − h1 )

Chapter 9-4
Since the pumping process involves an incompressible liquid, state 2 is in the
compressed liquid region, we use a second method to find the pump work or
the ∆h across the pump.

Recall the property relation:

dh = T ds + v dP

Since the ideal pumping process 1-2 is isentropic, ds = 0.

dh = v dP
∆h = h2 − h1 = v dP z1
2

The incompressible liquid assumption allows

v ≅ v1 = const .
h2 − h1 ≅ v1 ( P2 − P1 )

The pump work is calculated from

W! pump = m! (h2 − h1 ) ≅ mv
! 1 ( P2 − P1 )
W! pump
w pump = = v1 ( P2 − P1 )
m!

Using the steam tables

R|h = h = 19183
kJ
P = 10 kPa U|
1 f .
1
VS
Sat . liquid W|
kg
m3
|Tv = v
1 f = 0.00101
kg

Chapter 9-5
 w pump = v1 ( P2 − P1 )
m3 kJ
= 0.00101 (6000 − 10) kPa 3
kg m kPa
kJ
= 6.05
kg

Now, h2 is found from

h2 = w pump + h1
kJ kJ
= 6.05 + 19183
.
kg kg
kJ
= 197.88
kg
Boiler

To find the heat supplied in the boiler, we apply the steady-flow

conservation of mass and energy to the boiler. If we neglect the potential
and kinetic energies, and note that no work is done on the steam in the boiler,
then
m! 2 = m! 3 = m!
m! 2 h2 + Q! in = m! 3h3
Q! in = m! (h3 − h2 )

We find the properties at state 3 from the superheated tables as

R|h = 3043.0 kJ
P = 6000 kPa U| 3
3

T = 350 C W|
o V S kg
kJ
s = 6.335
|T
3
kg ⋅ K
3

Chapter 9-6
The heat transfer per unit mass is

Q! in
qin = = h3 − h2
m!
kJ
= (3040.3 − 197.88)
kg
kJ
= 2845.2
kg

Turbine

The turbine work is obtained from the application of the conservation of

mass and energy for steady flow. We assume the process is adiabatic and
reversible and neglect changes in kinetic and potential energies.

m! 3 = m! 4 = m!
m! 3h3 = W!turb + m! 4 h4
W!turb = m! (h3 − h4 )

We find the properties at state 4 from the steam tables by noting s4 = s3 and
asking three questions.

kJ kJ
at P4 = 10kPa: s f = 0.6483 ; sg = 81502
.
kg ⋅ K kg ⋅ K
is s4 < s f ?
is s f < s4 < sg ?
is sg < s4 ?

Chapter 9-7
 s4 = s f + x4 s fg
s4 − s f 6.335 − 0.6493
x4 = = = 0.758
s fg 7.5009

h4 = h f + x4 h fg
kJ kJ
= 19183
. + 0.758(2584.7 − 19183
. )
kg kg
kJ
= 2005.6
kg

The turbine work per unit mass is

wturb = h3 − h4
kJ
= (3043.0 − 2005.63)
kg
kJ
= 1037.4
kg
The net work done by the cycle is

wnet = wturb − w pump

kJ
= (1037.4 − 6.05)
kg
kJ
= 10314
.
kg

Chapter 9-8
The thermal efficiency is
wnet
η th =
qin
kJ
10314
.
kg
=
kJ
2845.2
kg
= 0.363 or 36.3%
Ways to improve the simple Rankine cycle efficiency:

• Superheat the vapor

Average temperature is higher during heat addition.
Moisture is reduced at turbine exit (we want x4 in the above example >
85 percent).

• Increase boiler pressure (for fixed maximum temperature)

Availability of steam is higher at higher pressures.
Moisture is increased at turbine exit.
• Lower condenser pressure
Less energy is lost to surroundings.
Moisture is increased at turbine exit.

Extra Assignment

For the above example, find the heat rejected by the cycle and evaluate the
thermal efficiency from

wnet qout
η th = = 1−
qin qin

Chapter 9-9
Reheat Cycle

As the boiler pressure is increased in the simple Rankine cycle, not only does
the thermal efficiency increase, but also the turbine exit moisture increases.
The reheat cycle allows the use of higher boiler pressures and provides a
means to keep the turbine exit moisture (x > 0.85 to 0.90) at an acceptable
level.
Steam Power Cycle with Reheat
Boiler High-P turbine Low-P turbine
3 Wturb

QI n
6
4

5 Condenser
Qout

2
Pump
1
Wp

Rankine Cycle with Reheat

Component Process First Law Result
Boiler Const. P qin = (h3 - h2) + (h5 - h4)
Turbine Isentropic wout = (h3 - h4) + (h5 - h6)
Condenser Const. P qout = (h6 - h1)
Pump Isentropic win = (h2 - h1) = v1(P2 - P1)

The thermal efficiency is given by

wnet
η th =
qin
(h3 - h4 ) + (h5 - h6 ) - (h2 - h1 )
=
(h3 - h2 ) + (h5 - h4 )
h6 − h1
= 1−
(h3 - h2 ) + (h5 - h4 )

Chapter 9-10
Let’s sketch the T-s diagram for the reheat cycle.
T

s
Example 9-2
Compare the thermal efficiency and turbine-exit quality at the condenser
pressure for a simple Rankine cycle and the reheat cycle when the boiler
pressure is 4 MPa, the boiler exit temperature is 400oC, and the condenser
pressure is 10 kPa. The reheat takes place at 0.4 MPa and the steam leaves
the reheater at 400oC.

ηth xturb exit

No Reheat 35.3% 0.8159
With Reheat 35.9% 0.9664

Regenerative Cycle

To improve the cycle thermal efficiency, the average temperature at which

heat is added must be increased.

One way to do this is to allow the steam leaving the boiler to expand the
steam in the turbine to an intermediate pressure. A portion of the steam is
extracted from the turbine and sent to a regenerative heater to preheat the
condensate before entering the boiler. This approach increases the average
temperature at which heat is added in the boiler. However, this reduces the
mass of steam expanding in the lower- pressure stages of the turbine, and,
thus, the total work done by the turbine. The work that is done is done more
efficiently.

The preheating of the condensate is done in a combination of open and

closed heaters. In the open feedwater heater, the extracted steam and the
condensate are physically mixed. In the closed feedwater heater, the
extracted steam and the condensate are not mixed.

Chapter 9-11
Cycle with an open feedwater heater
QI n
Rankine Steam Power Cycle with an Open Feedwater Heater
Turbine
5 Wturb

7
6 1-y
Open feedwater heater
y
Boiler Condenser
4
Qout
3 2
Pump 2 1-y
1
Wp 2
Pump 1

Wp 1

Rankine Steam Power Cycle with an Open Feedwater Heater

600
3000 kPa
500
5
500 kPa
400
T [C]

300
10 kPa
6
200 4

2
100 3
7

0
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

s [kJ/kg-K]

Chapter 9-12
Cycle with a closed feedwater heater with steam trap to condenser

QI n
Rankine Steam Power Cycle with a Closed Feedwater Heater
Turbine
4 Wnet

Boiler
6
5 1-y
y

3
2 Condenser
Qout
1
2
Closed Pump
Feedwater 7
Heater y Wp

8
Trap

Let’s sketch the T-s diagram for this closed feedwater heater cycle.

Chapter 9-13
Cycle with a closed feedwater heater with pump to boiler pressure

QI n
Rankine Steam Power Cycle with a Closed Feedwater Heater
Turbine
5 Wnet

Boiler
7
6 1-y
4 y

93 2 1-y Condenser
Qout
1-y 1
Closed 2
9 Pump 1
Feedwater 8
y Heater y Wp 1

Pump 2 Wp 1

Let’s sketch the T-s diagram for this closed feedwater heater cycle
(review Figure 9-16, page 575).
T

Chapter 9-14
Consider the regenerative cycle with the open feedwater heater.

To find the fraction of mass to be extracted from the turbine, apply the first
law to the feedwater heater and assume, in the ideal case, that the water
leaves the feedwater heater as a saturated liquid. (In the case of the closed
feedwater heater, the feedwater leaves the heater at a temperature equal to
the saturation temperature at the extraction pressure.)

Conservation of mass for the open feedwater heater:

Let y = m
! 6 / m! 5 be the fraction of mass extracted from the turbine for the
feedwater heater.

m! in = m! out
m! 6 + m! 2 = m! 3 = m! 5
m! 2 = m! 5 − m! 6 = m! 5 (1 − y )

Conservation of energy for the open feedwater heater:

E! in = E! out
m! 6h6 + m! 2 h2 = m! 3h3
ym! 5h6 + (1 − y )m! 5h2 = m! 5h3
h3 − h2
y=
h6 − h2

Example 9-3

An ideal regenerative steam power cycle operates so that steam enters the
turbine at 3 MPa, 500oC, and exhausts at 10 kPa. A single open feedwater
heater is used and operates at 0.5 MPa. Compute the cycle thermal
efficiency.

Using the software package the following data are obtained.

Chapter 9-15
 State P T h s v
o
kPa C kJ/kg kJ/kg⋅K m3/kg
1 10 191.8 0.00101
2 500
3 500 640.2 0.00109
4 3000
5 3000 500 3456.5 7.2338
6 500 2941.6 7.2338
7 10 2292.7 7.2338

The work for pump 1 is calculated from

w pump 1 = v1 ( P2 − P1 )
m3 kJ
= 0.00101 (500 − 10) kPa 3
kg m kPa
kJ
= 0.5
kg
Now, h2 is found from

h2 = w pump 1 + h1
kJ kJ
= 0.5 + 1918
.
kg kg
kJ
= 192.3
kg

The fraction of mass extracted from the turbine for the open feedwater heater
is obtained from the energy balance on the open feedwater heater, as shown
above.

Chapter 9-16
 h3 − h2
y=
h6 − h2
kJ
(640.2 − 192.3)
kg
= = 0163
.
kJ
. − 192.3)
(29416
kg

This means that for each kg of steam entering the turbine, 0.163 kg is
extracted for the feedwater heater.

The work for pump 2 is calculated from

w pump 2 = v3 ( P4 − P3 )
m3 kJ
= 0.00109 (3000 − 500) kPa 3
kg m kPa
kJ
= 2.7
kg
Now, h4 is found from the energy balance for the pump.

Eout = Ein
h4 = w pump 2 + h3
kJ kJ
= 2.7 + 640.2
kg kg
kJ
= 643.9
kg

Apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the isentropic turbine.

Chapter 9-17
 m! 5h5 = W!turb + m! 6h6 + m! 7 h7
W!turb = m! 5[h5 − yh6 − (1 − y )h7 ]
W!
wturb = turb = h5 − yh6 − (1 − y ) h7
m! 5
kJ
= [3456.5 − ( 0163 . ) − (1 − 0163
. )(29416 . )(2292.7)]
kg
kJ
= 1058.0
kg

The net work done by the cycle is

W!net = W!turb − W! pump 1 − W! pump 2

m! 5 wnet = m! 5 wturb − m! 1w pump 1 − m! 3 w pump 2
m! 5 wnet = m! 5 wturb − m! 5 (1 − y ) w pump 1 − m! 5 w pump 2
wnet = wturb − (1 − y ) w pump 1 − w pump 2
kJ
= [1058.0 − (1 − 0163
. )( 0.5) − 2.7]
kg
kJ
= 1054.9
kg

Apply the steady-flow conservation of mass and energy to the boiler.

Chapter 9-18
 m! 4 = m! 5
m! 4 h4 + Q! in = m! 5h5
Q! in = m! 5 (h5 − h4 )
Q! in
qin = = h5 − h4
m! 5

The heat transfer per unit mass entering the turbine at the high pressure,
state 5, is

qin = h5 − h4
kJ
= (3456.5 − 642.9)
kg
kJ
= 2813.6
kg

The thermal efficiency is

wnet
η th =
qin
kJ
1054.9
kg
=
kJ
2813.6
kg
= 0.375 or 37.5%

Chapter 9-19
If these data were used for a Rankine cycle with no regeneration, then ηth =
35.6 percent. Thus, the one open feedwater heater operating at 0.5 MPa
increased the thermal efficiency by 5.3 percent. However, note that the mass
flowing through the lower-pressure stages has been reduced by the amount
extracted for the feedwater and the net work output for the regenerative cycle
is about 10 percent lower than the standard Rankine cycle.

Below is a plot of cycle thermal efficiency versus the open feedwater heater
pressure. The feedwater heater pressure that makes the cycle thermal
efficiency a maximum is about 400 kPa.

ηth vs OF WH Pres s ure

0.376

0.374

0.372

0.370
ηth

0.368

0.366

0.364

0.362

0.360
0 450 900 1350 1800 2250
P ofwh [kP a]

Chapter 9-20
Below is a plot of cycle net work per unit mass flow at state 5 and the
fraction of mass y extracted for the feedwater heater versus the open
feedwater heater pressure. Clearly the net cycle work decreases and the
fraction of mass extracted increases with increasing extraction pressure.
Why does the fraction of mass extracted increase with increasing extraction
pressure?

wnet and y vs OF WH Pr es s ur e
1200 0.25

0.23
1150
0.20

1100 0.18

0.15
w net kJ/kg

1050

y
0.13

1000 0.10

0.08
950
0.05

900 0.03
0 450 900 1350 1800 2250
P ofwh [kP a]

Placement of Feedwater Heaters

The extraction pressures for multiple feedwater heaters are chosen to

maximize the cycle efficiency. As a rule of thumb, the extraction pressures
for the feedwater heaters are chosen such that the saturation temperature
difference between each component is about the same.

∆Tcond to FWH = ∆Tboiler to FWH , etc.

Chapter 9-21
Example 9-4

An ideal regenerative steam power cycle operates so that steam enters the
turbine at 3 MPa, 500oC, and exhausts at 10 kPa. Two closed feedwater
heaters are to be used. Select starting values for the feedwater heater
extraction pressures.

Steam
400
T [C]

300
3000 kPa
233.9 C 815 kPa
200 ∆ Τ = 62.68 C
136.2 kPa
∆ Τ = 62.68 C
100
∆ Τ = 62.68 C
45.85 C
10 kPa
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

s [kJ/kg-K]

Deviation from Actual Cycles

• Piping losses--frictional effects reduce the available energy content of the

steam.
• Turbine losses--turbine isentropic (or adiabatic) efficiency.

T P3
3

P4
4a
4s

Chapter 9-22
 wactual h3 − h4 a
η turb = =
wisentropic h3 − h4 s
The actual enthalpy at the turbine exit (needed for the energy analysis of the
next component) is

h4 a = h3 − η turb (h3 − h4 s )

• Pump losses--pump isentropic (or adiabatic) efficiency.

2a
T 2s P2

P1
1

wisentropic h2 s − h1
η pump = =
wactual h2 a − h1

The actual enthalpy at the pump exit (needed for the energy analysis of the
next component) is

Chapter 9-23
 1
h2 a = h1 + (h2 s − h1 )
η pump
• Condenser losses--relatively small losses that result from cooling the
condensate below the saturation temperature in the condenser.

Chapter 9-24