Traditional Manufacturing Processes

Casting

Forming

Sheet metal processing

Powder- and Ceramics Processing

Plastics processing

Cutting

Joining

Surface treatment
Welding
• A joining process in which coalescence of metals
(or non-metals) is produced by heating them to the
welding temperature.
• with or without the application of pressure, or by
pressure alone, and
• with or without the use of filler metals
•Coalescence is the process by which two or more
droplets or particles merge during contact to form a
single daughter droplet (or bubble).
•The weldability of a material refers to its ability to
be welded. Many metals and thermoplastics can be
welded, but some are easier to weld than others. It
greatly influences weld quality and is an important
factor in choosing which welding process to use.
 Welding
• In welding, two or more metal parts are joined to
form a single piece when one-part fabrication is
expensive or inconvenient.
• Both similar and dissimilar metals may be welded.
• The joining bond is metallurgical (involving some
diffusion) rather than just mechanical, as with
riveting and bolting.
• A variety of welding methods exist, including arc
and gas welding, as well as brazing and soldering
• During arc and gas welding, the workpieces to be
joined and the filler material are heated to a
sufficiently high temperature to cause both to melt;
upon solidification, the filler material forms a fusion
joint between the workpieces.
 Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ )
• The heat-affected zone is the narrow region of the base metal
adjacent to the weld bead, which is metallurgically altered by
the heat of welding
• The heat-affected zone is usually the major source of
metallurgical problems in welding
• The width of the heat-affected zone depends on the amount of
heat input during welding and increases with the heat input

Generally, the heat-

affected zone varies
from 1.5 mm to 6.5 mm
wide (0.06 in to 0.25 in)

FIGURE 11.8 Schematic cross-

sectional representation
showing the zones of a typical
fusion weld.
The blue area results from oxidation at a corresponding temperature of 600 °F.
This is an accurate way to identify temperature, but does not represent the HAZ
width. The HAZ is the narrow area that immediately surrounds the welded base
metal.
 Fusion welding
This process involves the partial melting of the two members welded in the
join region. The thermal energy required for this fusion is usually supplied
by chemical or electrical means.

Base metal melt + filler melt

Characteristics of the fusion weld joint

 Effect of HAZ
• If the workpiece material was previously cold worked,
this HAF may have experienced recrystallization and
grain growth, and thus a diminishment of strength,
hardness, and toughness

• Upon cooling, residual stresses may form in this

region that weaken the joint

• It can also lead to loss of corrosion resistance in

stainless steels and nickel-base alloys
 Diversity of welding processes
welding

Solid state welding Fusion welding Soldering and brazing

Resistance welding Soldering

Cold welding Brazing
Friction welding
Electrical energy Chemical energy
Diffusion welding
Flash welding Oxyacetylene welding

Ultrasonic welding Oxyfuel gas welding

Explosion welding
Consumable electrode Non consumable Other processes
electrode
Gas metal arc welding Laser beam welding
Gas tungsten arc welding
Shielded metal arc welding Thermit welding
Atomic hydrogen welding
Submerged arc welding Electron beam welding
Plasma arc welding
Flux cored arc welding
Electrogas welding
Electroslag welding
 Arc welding
Arc welding processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an
electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the
welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and
consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is sometimes
protected by some type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as a shielding gas, and
filler material is sometimes used as well.
Power supplies
To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of
different power supplies can be used. The most common classification is
constant current power supplies and constant voltage power supplies. Constant
current power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes such
as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they
maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important
because in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly
steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant
voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a
result, are most often used for automated welding processes such as gas metal
arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding. In these
processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance
between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in
current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current
will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the
wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance
The type of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding.
In welding, the positively charged anode will have a greater heat concentration, and as a
result, changing the polarity of the electrode has an impact on weld properties. If the
electrode is made cathode , then in DCSP the work is heated much faster than the
electrode as the electrons flow from cathode to anode this causes a deeper penetration
at localized position in work piece. This process is preferred on all metals except
aluminium, magnesium, copper and beryllium. On the other hand in DCRP electrode is
positive and the work is negative causing flow of electrons from work to electrode and
making electrode consumption faster . This system is preferred in welding thin sections
such as in automobile bodies and non ferrous metals. Nonconsumable electrode
processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current, as
well as alternating current. In DC system positively charged electrode causes shallow
welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds. Alternating current
rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One
disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossing.
THE WELDING ELECTRODE

METAL ARC welding electrodes consist of a core wire surrounded by a

flux coating. The flux coating is usually applied to the core wire by an
extrusion process, but a few types of electrodes are still made by dipping
the core wire into a thick slurry of fluxing material and drying out.

Electrode Coatings :
1. Slag forming ingredients, asbestos, mica, silica, fluorspar, titanium dioxide, Iron
oxide, magnesium carbonate, Calcium carbonate and aluminium oxide.
2. Arc stablising ingredients, or ionizing agents : potassium silicate, TiO2 + ZrO2
(Rutile), Mica, Calcium oxide, sodium oxide, magnesium oxide, feldspar (KAl Si3 O8).
3. Deoxidizing ingredients. Cellulose, Calcium carbonate, dolomite, starch, dextrin,
wood flour, graphite, aluminium, ferromanganese.
4. Binding materials. Sodium silicate, potassium silicate, asbestos.
5. Alloying constituents to improve strength of weld. Ti O2 and potassium
compounds increase the melting rate of the base metal for better penetration.
Functions of Coatings;

1. Improves arc stability by providing certain chemicals which have

this ability, by ionizing the path of arc.
2. Provides a protective gaseous atmosphere to prevent O2, H2 and
N2 pick-up by the molten metal.
3. Provides a protective slag over hot metal.
4. Provides flux, which helps to remove oxides and other impurities
from the molten weld metal.
5. Reduces spatter of weld metal - when coating burns off slower
than core.
6. Acts as deoxidizer.
7. Adds alloying elements.
8. Increases deposition efficiency.
9. Slows down the cooling rate of weld (due to protective layer of
slag) to prevent hardening.
10. Coatings are normally insulators of electricity and so permit the
use of electrodes in narrow grooves etc.
D.C. Power Source.

Advantages:
1. It is known to most operators.
2. It can handle all situations and jobs.
3. It is preferred for difficult task like over head welding.
4. Art stability is much higher with D.C. than with A.C. The reason is that the arc
gap cools when an A.C. arc is periodically extinguished and re-established.
5. One advantage of D.C. welding over A.C. welding that offsets its higher cost is
the fact that in D.C. supply, the electrons flow in one direction only. Direction of flow
of electrons can be changed by simply reversing the cables at the terminals located
on the generator (from electrode to work and vice-versa). This fact can be utilized
for obtaining desired penetration of the base metal.
The electrons move from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of an arc,
striking it at great speed. Due to this about 5/8 th of the arc energy goes to the
anode surface and about 3/8 th
is liberated at the cathode surface.
6. Higher power factor of the system (0.6 to 0.7) as compared to A.C. welding (0.3
or 0.4).
7. Bare electrodes are also suitable for welding.
Disadvantages:

1. The efficiency of the machine is low (from 0.3 to 0.6).

2. Cost is higher. The equipment is heavier in weight, larger in size and operation and
maintenance is difficult because of moving parts.

3. Electric energy consumption per kg of metal deposited is higher (6 to 10 kWh) as

compared to A.C. welding (3 to 4 kWh).

4. The chances of "magnetic arc blow" are more in D.C. welding than in A.C. welding.
Arc blow is the wandering arc that occurs during the welding of magnetic materials,
such as steel with D.C. system when the cross section of the metal being welded is
not symmetrical about the electrode. The unbalanced magnetic forces in this
situation cause the D.C. arc column to vander from what should be its normal
position.
When the electrode reaches the end of the workpiece, the flux lines move out of the
base metal, which is not possible. This results in concentration of flux lines behind
the electrode (opposite to the direction of electrode travel) and hence the
unbalanced magnetic field. This causes high magnetic pull on the arc column
resulting in "Backward Arc Blow". At the start of the welding, the magnetic pull will
be in the direction of electrode travel resulting in "Forward Arc Blow".
A.C. Power Source

Advantages:

1. Equipment for A.C. welding is considerably less expensive, light in weight, smaller in
size and simpler in operation due to the absence of moving parts. This also results
in lower maintenance and operating costs.
2. Little "magnetic arc blow“.
3. High efficiency of A.C. welding transformers (0.8 to 0.85).
4. Less electric energy consumption per kg of metal deposited as compared to D.C.
welding.

Disadvantages:

1. Low power factor.

2. Unstable arc. The stability of the arc can be increased by raising the voltage or by
increasing the frequency of the alternating current.
3. Only coated electrodes are suitable for welding. In case of A.C. supply, the arc
cools at zero current position. This tends to deionize the arc path. However,
shielding gas keeps the arc space ionized and, therefore, with A.C., coated
electrodes are used.
 WELDING EQUIPMENT
BESIDES THE welding machines and suitable electrodes, the
accessories necessary for a welder are:
1. A substantial work table with a fairly heavy mild steel plate for
a top.
2. Leads. Two are required — one from the machine to the
electrode holder, called the electrode lead, and one from the job
or work table.
3. Electrode Holders. These should be heavy enough not to
overheat and have well-insulated handles to avoid electric shocks
and accidental arcing.
4. Shields. These are necessary for protecting the eyes and face
from glare and ultra-violet radiation from the arc, and spatter from
the weld pool.
5. Clothing. Leather gloves and apron should be worn.
6. Chipping Hammer. Used for deslagging of welds.
7. Wire Brush. Used for removing rust, cleaning slag off welds,
etc.
STRIKING THE ARC:

Practice this on a piece of scrap plate before going on to more

exacting work. You may at first experience difficulty due to the tip
of the electrode "sticking" to the work piece. it is caused by
making too heavy a contact with the work and failing to withdraw
the electrode quickly enough. A low amperage will accentuate it.
This freezing-on of the tip may be overcome by scratching the
electrode along the plate surface in the same way as a match is
struck. As soon as the arc is established, withdraw the electrode
very slightly (2.0 mm) from the plate and feed it into the weld
pool as it melts down.
Another difficulty you may meet is the tendency, after the arc is
struck, to withdraw the electrode so far that the arc is broken
again. A little practice will soon remedy both of these faults.
ARC BLOW:
Arc blow is the deflection of the arc away from the weld point .This is
peculiar to DC. The arc, instead of playing steadily on one spot, is
deflected away from the point of welding due to the influence of
surrounding magnetic fields created by welding currents flowing in the
work. It may often be overcome or minimized by shifting the earth clamp
to another part of the work piece.

ARC LENGTH:

The securing of an arc length necessary to produce a neat weld soon

becomes almost automatic. You will find that a long arc produces more
heat. A very long arc produces a cracking or spattering noise and the
weld metal comes across in large, irregular blobs. The weld bead is
flattened and spatter increases. A short arc is essential if a high quality
weld is to be obtained, although if it is too short there is the danger of it
being blanketed by slag and the electrode tip being frozen in. If this
should happen, give the electrode a quick twist back over the weld to
detach it. Contact or "touch-weld" electrodes do not stick in this way,
and make welding much easier.
Shielding gases ;
They are inert or semi-inert gases that are commonly used in several welding
processes, most notably gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding.
Their purpose is to protect the weld area from atmospheric gases, such as
oxygen, nitrogen and water vapor. Depending on the materials being welded,
these atmospheric gases can reduce the quality of the weld or make the welding
process more difficult to use. Other arc welding processes use other methods of
protecting the weld from the atmosphere as well – shielded metal arc welding,
for example, uses an electrode covered in a flux that produces carbon dioxide
when consumed, a semi-inert gas that is an acceptable shielding gas for welding
steel.
Common shielding gases
Shielding gases fall into two categories—inert or semi-inert. Only two of
the noble gases, helium and argon, are cost effective enough to be used
in welding. These inert gases are used in gas tungsten arc welding, and
also in gas metal arc welding for the welding of non-ferrous materials.
Semi-inert shielding gases, or active shield gases, include
carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Most of these gases, in large quantities,
would damage the weld, but when used in small, controlled quantities,
can improve weld characteristics.
 Advantages of inert gas shielding arc

• Much greater penetration and the higher welding speeds

are possible, because of the higher current which can be
used.
• There is no slag to clean off after welding, because no
flux is used.
• Produce very high quality and clean welds on almost any
material in any welding position.
• The weld zone is visible.
• No possibility of cracks.
• There is no weld spatter.
• It is fast and economic because there are no frequent
changes of the electrodes, as with stick type electrodes.
 Shielded metal arc welding
• One of the most common types of arc welding is
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), which is also known as
manual metal arc welding (MMA) or stick welding. Electric
current is used to strike an arc between the base material and
consumable electrode rod, which is made of steel and is
covered with a flux that protects the weld area from oxidation
and contamination by producing CO2 gas during the welding
process. The electrode core itself acts as filler material, making
a separate filler unnecessary. The process is very versatile,
requiring little operator training and inexpensive equipment.
However, weld times are rather slow, since the consumable
electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the
residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding
Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous
materials, though specialty electrodes have made possible the
welding of cast iron, nickel, aluminum, copper, and other
metals. The versatility of the method makes it popular in a
number of applications, including repair work and construction
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding
From the figure a slag can be seen. This slag combines with the
electrode coating and forms a protective barrier for the weld. This
barrier protects the weld from the outside air and keeps out
contaminates, which will make the weld weak.
 Gas metal arc welding
• (GMAW), also known as metal inert gas (MIG)
welding, is a semi-automatic or automatic welding
process that uses a continuous wire feed as an
electrode and an inert or semi-inert gas mixture to
protect the weld from contamination. Since the
electrode is continuous, welding speeds are greater
for GMAW than for SMAW. However, because of the
additional equipment, the process is less portable
and versatile, but still useful for industrial
applications. The process can be applied to a wide
variety of metals, both ferrous and non-ferrous.
Gas Metal Arc Welding
 The GMAW process
The heat is produced by an electric arc between the continuously fed metal
electrode and the base metal. Both the base metal and the filler are melt.
The weld area is protected by inert shield gases.

Weldable metals:
-steel carbon
- steel low-allow
- steel stainless
- aluminum
- copper and its allows
- nickel and its allows
- magnesium
- reactive metal (titanium,

Characteristics of the weld joint by GMAW zirconium, tantalum)

 Main equipment
- torch
- electric power source
- shielding gas source
- wire spool with wire drive control

Equipment required for the GMAW

(Modern Welding (p63))
 Advantages of the GMAW

- wide
range of weldable metals (high-quality welds on all commercially
important metal)
- easy to learn
- can be used in all welding position
- low in cost (the equipment costs less than 3000 dollars)
- can be easily automated
- rapid, economic
- high level of productivity
 Submerged arc welding
• (SAW) is a common arc welding process. It requires a continuously fed
consumable solid or tubular (metal cored) electrode. The molten weld
and the arc zone are protected from atmospheric contamination by
being “submerged” under a blanket of granular fusible flux. When
molten, the flux becomes conductive, and provides a current path
between the electrode and the work.
• SAW is normally operated in the automatic or mechanized mode,
however, semi-automatic (hand-held) SAW guns with pressurized or
gravity flux feed delivery are available. Deposition rates approaching
100 lb/h (45 kg/h) have been reported — this compares to ~10 lb/h (5
kg/h) (max) for shielded metal arc welding. Currents ranging from 200 to
1500 A are commonly used; currents of up to 5000 A have been used
(multiple arcs).
• Single or multiple (2 to 5) electrode wire variations of the process exist.
SAW strip-cladding utilizes a flat strip electrode (e.g. 60 mm wide x 0.5
mm thick). DC or AC power can be utilized, and combinations of DC and
AC are common on multiple electrode systems. Constant Voltage
welding power supplies are most commonly used.
Material applications
• Carbon steels (structural and vessel construction);
• Low alloy steels;
• Stainless Steels;
• Nickel-based alloys;
• Surfacing applications (wearfacing, build-up, and corrosion resistant overlay
of steels).

Advantages of SAW
• High deposition rates (over 100 lb/h (45 kg/h) have been reported);
• Deep weld penetration;
• Sound welds are readily made (with good process design and control);
• High speed welding of thin sheet steels at over 100 in/min (2.5 m/min) is
possible;
• Minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted.

Limitations of SAW
• Limited to ferrous (steel or stainless steels) and some nickel based alloys;
• Normally limited to long straight seams or rotated pipes or vessels;
• Requires relatively troublesome flux handling systems;
• Flux and slag residue can present a health & safety issue;
• Requires inter-pass and post weld slag removal
 Flux-cored arc welding

• Flux-cored arc welding

• (FCAW) is a semi-automatic or automatic arc welding

process. FCAW requires a continuously fed consumable
tubular electrode containing a flux and a constant voltage
or, less commonly, a constant current
welding power supply. An externally supplied shielding gas
is sometimes supplied, but often the flux itself is relied
upon to generate the necessary protection from the
atmosphere. The process is widely used in construction
because of its high welding speed and portability.
 FCAW applications
• FCAW may be an "all-position" process with the
right filler metals
• No shielding gas needed
• A high-deposition rate process.
• Some "high-speed" (e.g., automotive applications)

Used on the following alloys:

• Mild and low alloy steels
• Stainless steels
• Some high nickel alloys
 Electro-Slag Welding, (ESW).

In this process, electrode wire (consumable) is fed into a molten slag pool. An arc is
drawn initially, but is then snuffed out by the slag, and the heat of fusion is provided by
resistance heating in the slag. The components to be welded are set in a vertical
position. depending upon the thickness of the pieces to be welded. The welding wire and
the flux are fed automatically into the clearance, Several electrode wires can be fed
simultaneously if the parts to be welded are quite thick. Water cooled copper shoes or
slides (dams) travel upwards along the joint. They close off the space between the parts
to be welded to prevent the slag and molten metal from spilling out of the pool. They also
cool the pool of metal and form the weld.
An arc is established between the steel backing plate and the electrode wire only at the
very beginning of operation before a pool of molten metal and flux of sufficient volume
has accumulated. Further melting of the electrode and base metal is due to the current
flow between the electrode, pool and slag.

The chief advantage of ESW is that very thick components (up to 400 mm thick) can be
welded together in a single pass without beveling the edges. A very clean weld is
obtained, without any slag inclusions.
The method is pre-dominantly applied in heavy engineering in the manufacture of bed
and frames for heavy machinery, drums, boilers etc.
 Electrogas welding
• Electrogas welding (EGW) is a continuous vertical
position arc welding process developed in 1961, in
which an arc is struck between a consumable
electrode and the workpiece. A shielding gas is
sometimes used, but pressure is not applied. A major
difference between EGW and its cousin
electroslag welding is that the arc in EGW is not
extinguished, instead remaining struck throughout the
welding process. It is used to make square-groove
welds for butt and t-joints, especially in the
shipbuilding industry and in the construction of storage
tanks.
 Carbon arc welding
• Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) is a process
which produces coalescence of metals by
heating them with an arc between a non
consumable carbon (graphite) electrode and
the work-piece. It was the first arc-welding
process ever developed but is not used for
many applications today, having been replaced
by twin carbon arc welding and other variations.
 Gas tungsten arc welding
• (GTAW), or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is a
manual welding process that uses a nonconsumable
electrode made of tungsten, an inert or semi-inert gas
mixture, and a separate filler material. Especially
useful for welding thin materials, this method is
characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds,
but it requires significant operator skill and can only
be accomplished at relatively low speeds. It can be
used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most
often applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is
often used when quality welds are extremely
important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and naval
applications.
The tungsten electrode has a high melting point that makes it
virtually non-consumable. This gives the gas tungsten arc welding
specific
advantages:
•Welding can be done in any position.
•The weld is usually equal to the base metal in composition.
•Flux is not used; therefore, finished welds do not require cleaning
of corrosive residue.
•Smoke or fumes are not present to obscure vision.
•Distortion of the base metal is minimal because the heat is
concentrated in a small area.
•No spatter is produced because metal is not transferred across
the arc.
 Atomic hydrogen welding
• In this, the coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc
maintained between two tungsten electrodes in an atmosphere of hydrogen.
Shielding is obtained from the hydrogen. Pressure is not applied; Hydrogen
gas flows by the tungsten electrodes in the holder, keeping them cooler and
lengthening the electrode life. Since hydrogen is not inert, it will react
chemically with its environment to form water vapours.
• In this process an a.c. arc is formed between two tungsten electrodes along
which streams of hydrogen are fed to the welding zone. The molecules of
hydrogen are dissociated by the high heat of the arc in the gap between the
electrodes. The formation of atomic hydrogen proceeds with the absorption
of heat:
• H2 = 2H - 421.2 kJ/mol.
• This atomic hydrogen recombines to form molecular hydrogen outside the
arc, particularly on the relatively cold surface of the work being welded,
releasing the heat gained previously :
• 2H = H2 + 421.2 kJ/mol. The metal is heated by the indirect arc and by the
heat evolved above, producing a
• temperature of about 3700 C of the flame. The hydrogen protects the
electrodes and the welding pool from oxidation and from saturation with
nitrogen. At the outer surface of this gaseous shield, the hydrogen combined
with oxygen of the air to form water vapour, making a bright orange flame.
Application.
Atomic hydrogen welding is mainly used in the welding of very thin sheets or small
diameter wires (2 to 10 mm thick), particularly those of noble metals and refractory
metals^ It is so, because of its much lower thermal efficiency as compared to direct arc
processes. Since the arc is struck between two electrodes, non-conducting materials
such as ceramics may be arc welded.
 Plasma arc welding
• Plasma Arc Welding, ( PAW ).
• The term 'plasma' refers to a gas which is sufficiently ionized (by raising it
to a high temperature) to conduct current freely. A conventional welding
arc is an example of a plasma. A plasma jet is created when the arc is
passed through a constructive nozzle. As a result of this constriction, the
plasma jet will take on a narrow, columnar shape with unique properties
that make it ideal for welding. Plasma jet welding is an electric-arc welding
process which employs a high temperature constricted arc or plasma jet to
obtain the melting and coalescence of metal, shielding is obtained from
the hot, ionized gas issuing from the nozzle, which may be supplemented
by an auxiliary source of shielding gas. Pressure is not applied and filler
may or may not be supplied.

• Plasma arc welding has a greater energy concentration as compared to

GTAW.
• A deep, narrow penetration is achievable; reducing distortion and allowing
square-butt joints in material up to ½” (12 mm) thick.
• Greater arc stability allows a much longer arc length .
The basic circuitry of a plasma - arc - welding torch is shown in Fig. The plasma torch is
constructed with an electrode (tungsten) centrally within a metal cup that guides an inert
streaming gas past the electrode. The discharge end of the cup is smaller in diameter
than the upper diameter so that a discharge nozzle is created. In addition, the inner wall
of the nozzle is lined with a ceramic material. The torch has passages for supplying gas
and water (to cool it).
PAW
limitations
• PAW requires relatively expensive and complex
equipment as compared to GTAW; proper torch
maintenance is critical
• Welding procedures tend to be more complex.

Gases
• At least two separate (and possibly three) flows of
gas are used in PAW:
• Plasma gas – flows through the orifice and becomes
ionized
• Shielding gas – flows through the outer nozzle and
shields the molten weld from the atmosphere
 Arc welding
Name Characteristics Applications
Atomic hydrogen
Two metal electrodes in hydrogen atmosphere Historical
welding
Bare metal arc
Consummable electrode, no flux or shielding gas Historical
welding
Copper, repair
Carbon arc welding Carbon electrode, historical
(limited)
Continuous consumable electrode, vertical Storage tanks,
Electrogas welding
positioning, steel only shipbuilding
Flux cored arc Industry,
Continuous consumable electrode filled with flux
welding construction
Gas metal arc welding Continuous consumable electrode and shielding
Industry
¹ gas
Gas tungsten arc
Nonconsumable electrode, slow, high quality welds Aerospace
welding
Tubing,
Plasma arc welding Nonconsumable electrode, constricted arc
instrumentation
Shielded metal arc Construction,
Consumable electrode covered in flux, steel only
welding outdoors
Welds studs to base material with heat and Construction,
Stud arc welding
pressure shipbuilding
 Gas welding
• The most common gas welding process is oxyfuel welding, also
known as oxyacetylene welding. It is one of the oldest and most
versatile welding processes, but in recent years it has become
less popular in industrial applications. It is still widely used for
welding pipes and tubes, as well as repair work. The equipment
is relatively inexpensive and simple, generally employing the
combustion of acetylene in oxygen to produce a welding flame
temperature of more than 3000°C. The flame, since it is less
concentrated than an electric arc, causes slower weld cooling,
which can lead to greater residual stresses and weld distortion,
though it eases the welding of high alloy steels. A similar
process, generally called oxyfuel cutting, is used to cut metals.
Other gas welding methods, such as air acetylene welding,
oxygen hydrogen welding, and pressure gas welding are quite
similar, generally differing only in the type of gases used. A
water torch is sometimes used for precision welding of items
such as jewelry. Gas welding is also used in plastic welding,
though the heated substance is air, and the temperatures are
much lower.
 Oxyfuel gas welding

Name Characteristics Applications

Air acetylene
Chemical welding process, not popular Limited
welding

Combustion of acetylene with oxygen produces high-

Oxyacetylene Maintenance, repair
temperature flame, inexpensive equipment
welding

Combustion of hydrogen with oxygen produces

Oxyhydrogen Limited
flame
welding

Gas flames heat surfaces and pressure produces the Pipe, railroad rails
Pressure gas
weld (limited)
welding
 Resistance welding
• Resistance Welding is "a welding process wherein coalescence is produced
by the heat obtained from resistance of the work to electric current in a
circuit of which the work is a part, and by the application of pressure and
without the use of a filler metal".
• The amount of heat generated at the contacting area of the elements to be
welded, is determined from Joule's law,
• Q = I2Rt, joules where I = current in amperes
• R = resistance of the circuit at the contacting area of the elements in ohms.
• t = time during which the current flows, in seconds.
• The voltage can be low, typically 0.5 to 10V, but currents are very high
(thousands of amperes).
• A special feature of resistance welding is the rapid heating of the surface
being welded (in hundredths of a second) due to the application of currents
of high amperage

• Types of resistance welding

• spot welding, seam welding ,flash welding, projection welding, and
upset welding, percussion welding.
The advantages of the resistance welding are :
•The heat is localised.
•Action is rapid.
•No filler metal is needed.
•The operation requires little skill and can be easily automated, suitable
for large quantity production.
•All the common metal and dissimilar metals can be resistance welded.
•The parent metal is normally not harmed and none is lost,

The main disadvantage ;

•High cost of equipment.
•There are limitations to the types of joints made.
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
In resistance spot welding, the overlapping metal parts are held between two
bar type metal electrodes which apply pressure, while an electric current
is passed through them. When the current is switched on the lapped
pieces of metal are heated in a restricted area. The generated heat melts
the surface layer of the metal in the central, more highly heated, area of
contact, and the adjacent layers of metal are softened to a plastic state.
Then the current is switched off and the electrodes are pressed and the
pressure is released only after the weld spot (nugget) has solidified. The
spot weld (nugget) is approximately the same size as the electrode tip,
usually between 3 or 6 mm in diameter.
Electrodes are made of cold-rolled copper with some Cd, Cr additions, or
copper - tungsten or molybdenum alloys. Electrodes are usually of hollow
construction and are cooled with water during operation to prevent their
overheating.

The welding cycle to produce one spot can be written as :

(1) Position the workpieces and squeeze between the electrodes.
(2) Apply a low voltage current to the electrodes.
(3) Hold until the proper temperature is attained,
(4) Release current, continue pressure.
(5) Release pressure and remove work.
Seam welding:
Seam welding is used in the manufacture of tanks, tubes and other
articles of steel and non ferrous metals which must have airtight joints.
Seam welding is primarily used for quantity production but is restricted to
joining metal gauges that are thinner than those which can be joined by
spot welding. The normal range of thickness compatible with seam
welding is 0.25 to 3.2 mm.
The resistance seam welding
Resistance Projection Welding, (RPW).
The projection welding process is similar to spot welding except that the
current is concentrated at the spots to be welded, when small dimples or
projections are embossed or coined on one of the sheets . Projection welding
is used extensively by Automobile industry for joining nuts, bolts and studs to
steel plates in car bodies. Because of their higher thermal conductivity, the
method is especially suitable for copper, aluminium, brass etc.
Upset Welding, ( UW ).
In this process, the ends of the two parts to be joined together are clamped in
position in the electrodes. The movable head is moved towards the fixed head
until the abutting surfaces of the work pieces are in light contact. Then the
proper current is made to flow across the interface for a preset time, while the
light pressure between the two parts is maintained. When the interface has
been heated to the welding temperature (plastic state), the current is switch off
and the welding pressure is increased to form an "upset", Upset butt welding is
extensively used in the fabrication of tubular sections, pipe and heavy steel
rings.
Flash Butt Welding, ( FW).
In this process, the parts to be welded approach towards each other and
come into contact with the current switched on. The procedure of butt welding
is as follows : After the parts are properly positioned and correct current,
head speed and time are selected, a cycle start button is actuated. This
makes the movable head to approach the fixed head. As the abutting
surfaces come very near to each other, extremely rapid heating takes place
when surface asperities first make contact. Molten metal is violently expelled
and burns in air with considerable force and "arcing", thus giving the process
its name "flash butt".

As this process
continues for a few
seconds, a very thin
layer at the interface is
melted. The current is
then shut off and the
two parts are rapidly
pressed together
causing a small upset .
Percussion Butt Welding, (PEW).
This process uses the heating effect of a high-intensity electric arc produced
by a rapid discharge of electric energy, in combination with a percussion
blow to forge weld metal pieces together. When the movable clamp is
released, it moves rapidly along with one of the workpiece . When the two
parts are about 1.6 mm apart, there is a sudden discharge of electric energy.
This causes intense arcing over the surfaces and brings them to high
temperature. The arc is extinguished by the percussion blow of the two parts
coming together with sufficient force to effect the weld.
Percussion welding makes it
possible to weld parts having
considerable difference in mass
and in thermal and electrical
conductivity, for example,
welding of copper to steels, steel
to magnesium alloys and so on.
The method is also used to weld
pins, studs, bolts, and so on, to
other components as well as to
join sections of pipe, rod, or tube
to each other or to flat sections.
 Resistance welding

Name Characteristics Applications

Resistance seam welding Two wheel-shaped electrodes

roll along workpieces, applying
pressure and current

Two pointed electrodes apply

Resistance spot
pressure and current to two or Automobile industry
welding
more thin workpieces

Butt joint surfaces heated and

Upset welding brought together by force
Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding technique used to join multiple pieces
of metal through the use of a laser. The beam provides a concentrated heat source,
allowing for narrow, deep welds and high welding rates. The process is frequently used
in high volume applications, such as in the automotive industry.
Operation
Like electron beam welding, laser beam welding has high power density (on the order of
1 MW/cm²), resulting in small heat-affected zones and high heating and cooling rates. The
spot size of the laser can vary between 0.2 mm and 13 mm, though only smaller sizes are
used for welding metals with high melting points. The depth of penetration is proportional
to the amount of power supplied, but is also dependent on the location of the focal point:
penetration is maximized when the focal point is slightly below the surface of the
workpiece.
LBW is a versatile process, capable of welding carbon steels, HSLA steels, stainless
steel, aluminum, and titanium. Due to high cooling rates, cracking is a concern when
welding high-carbon steels. The weld quality is high, similar to that of electron beam
welding. The speed of welding is proportional to the amount of power supplied but also
depends on the type and thickness of the workpieces. The high power capability of gas
lasers make them especially suitable for high volume applications. LBW is particularly
dominant in the automotive industry.A derivative of LBW, laser-hybrid welding, combines
the laser of LBW with an arc welding method such as gas metal arc welding. This
combination allows for greater positioning flexibility, since GMAW supplies molten metal to
fill the joint, and due to the use of a laser, increases the welding speed over what is
normally possible with GMAW. Weld quality tends to be higher as well, since the potential
for undercutting is reduced
 Solid-state welding
Like the first welding process, forge welding, some modern welding methods
do not involve the melting of the materials being joined. One of the most
popular, ultrasonic welding, is used to connect thin sheets or wires made of
metal or thermoplastic by vibrating them at high frequency and under high
pressure. The equipment and methods involved are similar to that of resistance
welding, but instead of electric current, vibration provides energy input.
Welding metals with this process does not involve melting the materials;
instead, the weld is formed by introducing mechanical vibrations horizontally
under pressure. When welding plastics, the materials should have similar
melting temperatures, and the vibrations are introduced vertically. Ultrasonic
welding is commonly used for making electrical connections out of aluminum or
copper, and it is also a very common polymer welding process.
Another common process, explosion welding, involves the joining of materials
by pushing them together under extremely high pressure. The energy from the
impact plasticizes the materials, forming a weld, even though only a limited
amount of heat is generated. The process is commonly used for welding
dissimilar materials, such as the welding of aluminum with steel in ship hulls or
compound plates. Other solid-state welding processes include co-extrusion
welding, cold welding, diffusion welding, friction welding (including friction stir
welding), high frequency welding, hot pressure welding, induction welding, and
roll welding
 Energy beam welding
• Energy beam welding methods, namely laser beam welding
and electron beam welding, are relatively new processes that
have become quite popular in high production applications. The
two processes are quite similar, differing most notably in their
source of power. Laser beam welding employs a highly focused
laser beam, while electron beam welding is done in a vacuum
and uses an electron beam. Both have a very high energy
density, making deep weld penetration possible and minimizing
the size of the weld area. Both processes are extremely fast,
and are easily automated, making them highly productive. The
primary disadvantages are their very high equipment costs
(though these are decreasing) and a susceptibility to thermal
cracking. Developments in this area include laser-hybrid
welding, which uses principles from both laser beam welding
and arc welding for even better weld properties
Common welding joint types – (1) Square butt joint, (2)
Single-V preparation joint, (3) Lap joint, (4) T-joint.