1

Introduction to Welding
• Welding is a materials joining process in which two or
more parts are coalesced at their contacting surfaces by
a suitable application of heat and/or pressure.
• Many welding processes are accomplished by heat
alone, with no pressure applied;
• Others by a combination of heat and pressure; and
• still others by pressure alone, with no external heat
supplied.
• In some welding processes a filler material is added to
facilitate coalescence (to increase the volume and
strength of the weld joint).
Types of Welding Processes
Two major groups: (1) fusion and (2) solid-state welding.
Fusion welding
• use heat to melt the base metals.
• In many fusion welding operations, a filler metal is
added to the molten pool to facilitate the process and
provide bulk and strength to the welded joint.
• A fusion-welding operation in which no filler metal is
added is referred to as an autogenous weld.
• The fusion category includes the most widely used
welding processes, which can be organized into the
following general groups
Arc welding (AW)
• heating of the metals is accomplished by an electric arc.
• Some arc welding operations also apply pressure during the
process and most utilize a filler metal.
Resistance welding (RW)
• achieves coalescence using heat from electrical resistance to the
flow of a current passing between the faying surfaces of two
parts held together under pressure.
Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW)
• use an oxyfuel gas, such as a mixture of oxygen and acetylene,
to produce a hot flame for melting the base metal and filler
metal.
Other fusion-welding processes
• produce fusion of the metals joined include electron beam
welding and laser beam welding.
Solid-state welding
• coalescence results from application of pressure alone or a
combination of heat and pressure.
• If heat is used, the temperature in the process is below the melting
point of the metals being welded.
• No filler metal is utilized.
• Diffusion welding (DFW): Two surfaces are held together under
pressure at an elevated temperature and the parts coalesce by solid-
state diffusion.
• Friction welding (FRW): Coalescence is achieved by the heat of
friction between two surfaces.
• Ultrasonic welding (USW): Moderate pressure is applied b/n the
two parts and an oscillating motion at ultrasonic frequencies is
used in a direction parallel to the contacting surfaces.
• The combination of normal and vibratory forces results in shear
stresses that remove surface films and achieve atomic bonding of
the surfaces.
The principal applications of welding are
 Construction, such as buildings and bridges;
 Piping, pressure vessels, boilers, and storage tanks;
 Shipbuilding;
 Aircraft and aerospace; and
 Automotive and railroad.
Types of Joints

(a) Butt joint: the parts lie in the same plane and are joined
at their edges.
(b) Corner joint: the parts form a right angle and are joined
at the corner of the angle.
(c) Lap joint: consists of two overlapping parts.
(d) Tee joint: one part is perpendicular to the other in the
approximate shape of the letter ‘‘T’’.
(e) Edge joint: the parts are parallel with at least one of their
edges in common, and the joint is made at the common
edge(s).
Types of Welds
• Each of the preceding joints can be made by welding.
• It is appropriate to distinguish between the joint type and
the way in which it is welded - the weld type.
• Differences among weld types are in geometry (joint
type) and welding process.

Reading assignment on Types of Welds

 Fillet weld
 Groove welds
 Plug and slot welds
 Spot and seam welds
 Flange and surfacing welds
Arc welding (AW)
• is a fusion-welding process in which coalescence of the
metals is achieved by the heat of an electric arc between
an electrode and the work.

The basic configuration and electrical circuit of an arc welding process

• An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a
gap in a circuit.
• To initiate the arc in an AW process, the electrode is brought
into contact with the work and then quickly separated from
it by a short distance.
• The electric energy from the arc thus formed produces
temperatures of 55000C (10,0000F) or higher, sufficiently
hot to melt any metal.
• A pool of molten metal, consisting of base metal and filler
metal (if used) is formed near the tip of the electrode.
• As the electrode is moved along the joint, the molten weld
pool solidifies in its wake.
 Arc welding

Equipment:
• A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.)
• Two cables- one for work and one for electrode
• Electrode holder
• Electrode
• Protective shield
• Gloves
• Wire brush
• Chipping hammer
• Goggles
 Arc welding

Advantages Limitations
– Most efficient way to • Manually applied, therefore
join metals high labor cost.
– Lowest-cost joining • Need high energy causing
method
danger
– Affords lighter weight
through better utilization • Not convenient for
of materials disassembly.
– Joins all commercial • Defects are hard to detect at
metals joints.
– Provides design
flexibility
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES
• Energy can be obtained from an electrical or
electromagnetic source in three distinct ways:
1) an electric arc;
2) resistance to either the direct flow of current in a
circuit or currents induced in the work piece; and
3) high-intensity radiant energy or beams in which
the kinetic energy of particles in the irradiating
field or beam is converted to heat by collisions
with atoms in the work piece.
 Cont….
• Fusion welding processes that employ an electric arc as a
heat source are called arc welding processes.

• More processes use this source than any other source,

primarily because heat for fusion can be effectively
generated, concentrated and controlled.
 The arc in arc welding

• is created between an electrode and a work piece or a

weldment, each at different polarities.

• The arc itself consists of thermally emitted electrons and

positive ions from this electrode and the work piece.

• These electrons and positive ions are accelerated by the

potential field (voltage) between the source (one
electrode) and the work (the opposite charged electrode),
and produce heat when they convert their kinetic energy
by collision with the opposite charged element.
 Cont…
• Although electrons are far less massive than all
positive ions (approximately 1/1850th the mass of a
proton or positive hydrogen ion), they have much
greater kinetic energy because they can be accelerated
to much higher velocities under the influence of a
given electric field.

• Since kinetic-energy is one-half the product of mass

and the square of velocity, this is fairly apparent.
 Two Basic Types of Arc Welding
(Based on Electrodes)

1. Consumable electrodes
 consumed during welding process
 added to weld joint as filler metal
 in the form of rods or spools of wire

2. Non-consumable electrodes
 not consumed during welding process but does get
gradually eroded
 filler metal must be added separately if it is added
 Cont..
• If the electrode is intended to be permanent, the
processes are called permanent electrode arc welding
processes or, more commonly, non consumable
electrode arc welding processes.

• If the electrode is intended to be consumed, the

processes are called consumable electrode arc
welding processes.
 For non consumable electrode arc welding processes, if
filler metal is required, it must be added from a
supplemental source (e.g., filler wire).

 Non consumable electrodes are usually composed of

tungsten or carbon (graphite), because of their very high
melting temperatures, but must be protected from
oxidation by an inert shielding gas.

 Consumable electrodes are often composed of the metal

or alloy needed in the filler, and come in the form of rods
or “sticks” (discontinuous electrodes) or wires (continuous
electrodes).

 They too need to be protected so that the molten metal

they produce is not oxidized and contaminated during
transfer to the work piece to produce a weld.
 Whether the arc welding process employs a non
consumable or consumable electrode, shielding must be
provided to the weld by a chemically inert or non oxidizing
gas generated by decomposing or dissociating the coating
on or flux core in a consumable electrode, or from an
external inert gas source (e.g., pressurized gas cylinder) for
all non consumable and many consumable electrode
processes.

 This shielding is to prevent oxidation of the highly reactive

molten weld metal during its transfer to the work piece to
produce the weld, of the newly produced molten weld
pool, and of the very hot metal in the just-solidified weld.

 Shielding gases (from whatever source) also help to

stabilize the arc by providing an additional supply of
electrons and positive ions.
 Arc welding (AW): Arc Shielding
1. At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically
reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air

 Mechanical properties of joint can be degraded by

these reactions
 Arc must be shielded from surrounding air in AW
processes to prevent reaction

2. Arc shielding is accomplished by

 Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2

 Flux
 Consumable Electrode AW Processes

 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (or Stick Welding)

 Gas Metal Arc Welding (or Metal Inert Gas

Welding)

 Submerged Arc Welding

 Flux-Cored Arc Welding

 Electro-gas Welding
 AW: Consumable: Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)
 Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod
and coating around rod.
 Coating composed of chemicals that provide flux and
shielding.
 Low cost welding system: Power supply, connecting cables,
and electrode holder available for.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) or Metal
Inert Gas (MIG) Welding
Uses a consumable bare metal wire as electrode with
shielding by flooding arc with a gas
1. Wire is fed continuously and automatically from a
spool through the welding gun.
2. Shielding gases include argon and helium for
aluminum welding, and CO2 for steel welding.
3. Bare electrode wire (no flux) plus shielding gases
eliminate slag on weld bead. No need for manual
grinding and cleaning of slag
4. Medium cost welding system:
Metal Inert Gas Welding machine :
Gas Metal Arc Welding
 GMAW Advantages over
SMAW
1. Continuous welding because of continuous wire electrode.
Sticks must be periodically changed in SMAW.
2. Higher deposition rates.
3. Eliminates problem of slag removal.
4. Can be readily automated.
5. Has better control to make cleaner & narrower welds than
SMAW.
 GMAW Applications
1. Used to weld ferrous and various non-ferrous
metals.

2. Good for fabrications such as frames and farm

equipment.

3. Can weld thicker metal (not as thick as

SMAW).
 Non-consumable Electrode Processes

 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

 Plasma Arc Welding

 Carbon Arc Welding

 Stud Welding
Parameters for effective welding
Successful welding depends on the following
factors:
• Selection of the correct electrode
• Selection of the correct size of the electrode
for the job
• Correct welding current
• Correct arc length
• Correct angle of electrode to work
• Correct travel speed
• Correct preparation of work to be welded.
 Electrode Selection
 As a general rule, the selection of an electrode
is straight forward, in that it is only a matter of
selecting an electrode of similar composition
to the parent metal.
Electrode Size
 The size of the electrode generally depends on the
thickness of the section being welded, and the
thicker the section the larger the electrode
required.
Welding current
 Correct current selection for a particular job is an important
factor in arc welding. With the current set too low, difficulty is
experienced in striking and maintaining a stable arc. The
electrode tends to stick to the work, penetration is poor and
beads with a distinct rounded profile will be deposited.

 excessive current is accompanied by overheating of the

electrode. It will cause undercut and burning through of the
material, and will give excessive spatter.

 Normal current for a particular job may be considered as the

maximum, which can be used without burning through the
work, over-heating the electrode or producing a rough
spattered surface (i.e. the current in the middle of the range
specified on the electrode package is considered to be the
optimum).
 Arc length
 There is a simple rule for the proper arc length; it
should be the shortest arc that gives a good
surface to the weld.
 An arc too long reduces penetration, produces
spatter and gives a rough surface finish to the
weld.
 An excessively short arc will cause sticking of the
electrode and rough deposits that are associated
with slag inclusions.
 Correct travel Speed

 Correct travel speed for normal welding

applications varies between approximately 100 and
300mm per minute, depending on electrode size,
size of run required and the amperage used.

 excessive travel speeds lead to poor fusion, lack of

penetration etc, while too slow a rate of travel will
frequently lead to arc instability, slag inclusions and
poor mechanical properties.
 TYPES OF Weld Joint AND WELDS
Types of Joints Types of Welds

– Butt joint – Fillet

weld
– Corner joint – Groove weld
– Plug and slot
– Lap joint welds
– Tee joint – Spot and Seam
welds
– Edge joint – Flange and
Surfacing welds
-----T joint----
Butt welds : A butt weld is made between two pieces of metal
usually in the same plane, the weld metal maintaining
continuity between the sections.
Fillet welds : These welds are roughly triangular in cross section and
between two surfaces not in the same plane and the weld metal is
substantially placed alongside the components being joined.
Weld joint fit up before welding. The weld groove which is to
be filled by welding can be seen.
Weld joint fit up for a pipe to reducer joint, the root gap is clearly visible.
Double Vee Weld groove fit up for plates bend in to
pipes
 GAS WELDING
• Sound weld is obtained by selecting proper size of flame,
filler material and method of moving torch.
• The temperature generated during the process is 33000c.
• When the metal is fused, oxygen from the atmosphere
and the torch combines with molten metal and forms
oxides, results defective weld.
• Fluxes are added to the welded metal to remove oxides.
• Common fluxes used are made of sodium, potassium,
Lithium and borax.
• Flux can be applied as paste, powder, liquid, solid
coating or gas.
 GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT...
1. Gas Cylinders
Pressure
Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2
Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2
2. Regulators
Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2
Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2
Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness
of the work pieces welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valve
7. Non return valve
Oxy-Acetylene welding
 TYPES OF FLAMES…
• Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long
white inner area (Feather) surrounded by a transparent blue
envelope is called Carburizing flame (30000c)

• Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone

surrounded by the transparent blue envelope is called Neutral
flame (It has a balance of fuel gas and oxygen) (32000c)
• Used for welding steels, aluminum, copper and cast iron

• If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more

pointed, while the envelope becomes shorter and more fierce
is called Oxidizing flame has the highest temperature about
34000c.
• Used for welding brass and brazing operation.
End of Chapter Five