Quantum Computing

Presented by : Sidharth Gaikwad

 Overview

 Introduction and History

 Data Representation
 Operations on Data
 Shor’s Algorithm
 Conclusion and Open Questions
 Introduction

What is a quantum computer?

 A quantum computer is a machine that performs calculations based on

the laws of quantum mechanics, which is the behavior of particles at the
sub-atomic level.
 Introduction

 “I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum

mechanics” - Feynman
 1982 - Feynman proposed the idea of creating machines based
on the laws of quantum mechanics instead of the laws of
classical physics.

 1985 - David Deutsch developed the quantum turing machine,

showing that quantum circuits are universal.
 1994 - Peter Shor came up with a quantum algorithm to factor very
large numbers in polynomial time.
1997 - Lov Grover develops a quantum search algorithm with O(√N)
complexity
 Overview
 Introduction and History

 Data Representation
 Operations on Data
 Shor’s Algorithm
 Conclusion and Open Questions
 Representation of Data - Qubits
A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states denoted by
|0> and |1>. A single bit of this form is known as a qubit
A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy levels of an atom.
An excited state representing |1> and a ground state representing |0>.

Light pulse of
frequency  for
Excited time interval t
State

Nucleus
Ground
State
Electron
State |0> State |1>
 Representation of Data - Superposition

A single qubit can be forced into a superposition of the two states denoted by the
addition of the state vectors:

|> =  |0> +  |1>

1 2

Where  and  are complex numbers and | | + |  | = 1 2 2

1 2 1 2

A qubit in superposition is in both of the states |1> and |

0 at the same time
 Representation of Data - Superposition
Light pulse of
frequency  for time
interval t/2

State |0> State |0> + |1>

Consider a 3 bit qubit register. An equally weighted superposition of all

possible states would be denoted by:
|>
1= |000> +
1 |001> + . . . + |111>
1
√8 √8 √8
 Data Retrieval

 In general, an n qubit register can represent the numbers 0 through 2^n-1

simultaneously.

Sound too good to be true?…It is!

 If we attempt to retrieve the values represented within a superposition, the
superposition randomly collapses to represent just one of the original values.

In our equation: |> =  |0> +  |1> ,  represents the probability of the

1 2 1
superposition collapsing to |0>. The ’s are called probability amplitudes. In a
balanced superposition,  = 1/√2 where n is the number of qubits.

n
 Relationships among data - Entanglement

Entanglement is the ability of quantum systems to exhibit correlations between

states within a superposition.
Imagine two qubits, each in the state |0> + |1> (a superposition of the 0 and 1.) We
can entangle the two qubits such that the measurement of one qubit is always
correlated to the measurement of the other qubit.
 Overview
 Introduction and History

 Data Representation
 Operations on Data
 Shor’s Algorithm
 Conclusion and Open Questions
 Operations on Qubits - Reversible Logic

Due to the nature of quantum physics, the destruction of information in a gate

will cause heat to be evolved which can destroy the superposition of qubits.

Ex.
Input Output
The AND Gate In these 3 cases,
A B C information is
0 0 0 being destroyed
A
0 1 0
C
B 1 0 0
1 1 1

This type of gate cannot be used. We must use Quantum Gates.

 Quantum Gates
 Quantum Gates are similar to classical gates, but do not have a degenerate output.
i.e. their original input state can be derived from their output state, uniquely. They
must be reversible.

This means that a deterministic computation can be performed on a quantum

computer only if it is reversible. Luckily, it has been shown that any deterministic
computation can be made reversible.(Charles Bennet, 1973)
 Quantum Gates - Hadamard

Simplest gate involves one qubit and is called a Hadamard Gate (also known as a
square-root of NOT gate.) Used to put qubits into superposition.

H H

State State | State

0> + |1> |1>
|0>

Note: Two Hadamard gates used in

succession can be used as a NOT gate
 Quantum Gates - Controlled NOT

A gate which operates on two qubits is called a Controlled-NOT (CN) Gate.

If the bit on the control line is 1, invert the bit on the target line.

Input Output
A - Target A’ A B A’ B’
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
B - Control B’ 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

Note: The CN gate has a similar

behavior to the XOR gate with some
extra information to make it reversible.
 Example Operation - Multiplication By 2

 We can build a reversible logic circuit to calculate multiplication by 2 using CN gates

arranged in the following manner:

Input Output
Carry Ones Carry Ones
Bit Bit Bit Bit
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0

0 Carry Bit

Ones Bit
H
 Quantum Gates - Controlled Controlled NOT (CCN)

A gate which operates on three qubits is called a Controlled Controlled NOT

(CCN) Gate. Iff the bits on both of the control lines is 1,then the target bit is
inverted.

Input Output
A B C A’ B’ C’
A - Target A’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
B - Control 1 B’ 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
C - Control 2 C’ 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
 A Universal Quantum Computer
 The CCN gate has been shown to be a universal reversible logic gate as it can
be used as a NAND gate.

A - Target A’ Input Output

A B C A’ B’ C’
0 0 0 0 0 0
B - Control 1 B’ 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
C - Control 2 C’ 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
When our target input is 1, our target
output is a result of a NAND of B and C.
 Shor’s Algorithm

Shor’s algorithm shows (in principle,) that a quantum computer is capable of

factoring very large numbers in polynomial time.

The algorithm is dependant on

Modular Arithmetic
Quantum Parallelism
Quantum Fourier Transform
 Conclusion

 In 2001, a 7 qubit machine was built and programmed to run Shor’s algorithm to
successfully factor 15.

Can quantum computers solve NP Complete problems in polynomial time?