)2( ‫الكترونيات حيوية و قياسات‬

BBM322- Biomedical instrumentation II

Chapter 4: Chemical Sensors

Prepared by:
Pr. Noman AL Naggar- Professor in biomedical engineering
Department of Biomedical Engineering UST-Sana’a
noman_qaed@yahoo.com
Modified by:
Dr. Nasr Kaid AL Awdi- PhD in Biomedical Engineering,
Tlemcen University, Algeria.
Department of Biomedical Engineering UST-Aden
Nasralawdi@gmail.com 1
 Chemical Sensors
Outline
Introduction to chemical sensors
Gas Sensors
Blood Gas Measurement
1. Oxygen Sensors
2. Transcutaneous pO2
3. pH electrode
4. CO2 Sensors- The carbon dioxide electrode
5. Transcutaneous carbon dioxide sensor
Multi Chemical Sensor
6. The oximeter catheter system
7. Cardiac output measured by thermodilution
Electrochemical Sensors
8. Potentiometric (measure voltage)
9. Amperometric (measure current)
10. Conductometric (measure conductivity)
References
Slide-2
 Introduction to Chemical Sensors
Definitions:
Analytical Chemistry:
A scientific discipline that develops and applies methods, instruments
and strategies to obtain information on the composition and nature of matter in
space and time.
Chemical measurements:
Important analyses and their normal ranges in blood, which indicate the
physiological status of the body: gas pressure and related parameters, electrolytes,
and metabolites.
• Chemical sensors features:
– For recognition of presence of specific substances and their concentration.
– Sensitive to stimuli produced by various chemical compound or elements.
– High selectivity.
– Very small output electrical signal: need high quality interface electronic devices
– Gas/liquid phase sensor: ex, O2 in air/ dissolved oxygen
3
Introduction to Chemical Sensors
Chemical Sensor Modalities
 Gas Sensors
Blood Gas Measurement
 Blood pressure: arterial BP, intracardiac BP, spinal fluid pressure,
intraventricular and brain pressure are important vital in diagnosis.

 Pressures of oxygen (pO2), carbon dioxide (pCO2) as well as the concentration

of hydrogen ions (pH) are vital in diagnosis.

 Oxygen is measured indirectly as a percentage of Hemoglobin which is

combined with oxygen (sO2).

 pO2 can also provide the above value using the oxyhemoglobin dissociation
curve but is a poor estimate.
Blood oxygen measurement:
Measuring arterial blood gases pO2: In operating room and intensive care unit to
monitor respiratory and circulatory condition of a patient.

Slide-5
 Gas Sensors
Blood Gas Measurement
1- Oxygen Sensors
• Oxygen content of gases and liquid
- Partial pressure: pressure exerted by one gas in a mixture of gases.
- The dissolving process for gases is an equilibrium.
- The solubility of a gas depends directly on the gas pressure.
- If the temperature stays constant increasing the pressure will increase the amount of
dissolved gas.
• Sensor methods:
– Paramagnetic properties
of oxygen
– Clark electrode
– Fuel cell, galvanic cell type

Figure - PO2 electrode

(From R. Hicks, J. R. Schenken, and M. A. Steinrauf, Laboratory Instrumentation. Hagerstown, MD: Harper & Row, 1974. Used with
permission of C. A. McWhorter.) 6
 Gas Sensors 1- Oxygen Sensors
Blood Gas Measurement
- Based on amperometric measurements
- Consists of a pair of electrodes (Ag anode and Pt cathode) in an
electrolyte solution.
- Electrodes are separated by a gas-permeable membrane.
- Membrane may be teflon, silicon rubber, polyethylene.
- Electrolyte is a solution of KCl.
- O2 diffuses through the membrane and is reduced
- Electrolytic current is then measured

Figure - PO2 electrode

(From R. Hicks, J. R. Schenken, and M. A. Steinrauf, Laboratory Instrumentation. Hagerstown, MD: Harper & Row, 1974. Used with
permission of C. A. McWhorter.)
 Gas Sensors 1- Oxygen Sensors

fig_10_04
Blood Gas Measurement

Figure PO2 electrode

 Gas Sensors 1- Oxygen Sensors
Blood Gas Measurement
1-2. Blood oxygenation:

 Oxygen saturation (% of
oxygenated hemoglobin)
can be measured and used
to represent blood
oxygenation.

 Relationship between
arterial blood oxygen
saturation and partial
pressure of O2

Figure - The oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve, showing the effect of pH and temperature on the relationship
9
between SO and PO .
 Gas Sensors 2-Transcutaneous pO2
Blood Gas Measurement

1-2. Blood oxygenation:

 Oximetry: (color) measures
light absorbance at one
wavelength where there is a
large difference between Hb
and HbO2 and at another
wavelength (or more
wavelengths).
 The arterial functional
oxygen saturation (SaO2) is
defined as the percentage of
oxygenated hemoglobin
(HbO2) divided by the rest
of the hemoglobin in the
model (HbO2+ Hb)
10
 Gas Sensors 2-Transcutaneous pO2
Blood Gas Measurement
1-2. Blood oxygenation:
Oxygen saturation-Pulse Oximetry
The pulse oximeter is a spectrophotometric device
that detects and calculates the differential absorption
of light by oxygenated and reduced hemoglobin to
get SO2.
A light source and a photodetector are contained
within an ear or finger probe for easy application.

Mechanism of acquisition
 Two wavelengths of monochromatic light -- red (660 nm) and infrared (940 nm) -- are
used to gauge the presence of oxygenated and reduced hemoglobin in blood.
 With each pulse beat the device interprets the ratio of the pulse-added red absorbance to
the pulse-added infrared absorbance.
 The calculation requires previously determined calibration curves that relate
transcutaneous light absorption to SO2.
Slide-11
 Gas Sensors 2-Transcutaneous pO2
Blood Gas Measurement
1-2. Blood oxygenation
Pulse oximetry: use the pulsatile (AC) component to extract oxygen saturation information
and the non-pulsatile (DC) signal as a reference for normalization

Spectrophotometer D

Light Source Light Detector

Cuvette
Change in In the Chemistry Lab
arterial
blood Photoplethysmograph
volume
associated Light Detector
Light Source
with
periodic
contraction
of the
Physiological Measurement
heart

12
 Gas Sensors 2-Transcutaneous pO2
Blood Gas Measurement
1-2. Blood oxygenation :
Oxygen saturation-Pulse Oximetry

Figure :
(a) Noninvasive patient monitor capable of (a)
measuring ECG, noninvasive blood pressure
(using automatic oscillometry), respiration
(using impedance pneumography), transmission
pulse oximetry, and temperature.

(b) Disposable transmission So2 sensor in open

(b)
position. Note the light sources and detector,
which can be placed on each side of the finger.

[From Y. M. Mendelson, "Blood gas measurement, transcutaneous," in J. G. Webster (ed.). Encyclopedia of Medical
Devices and Instrumentation. New York. Wiley, 1988. pp.448-459. Used by permission.] 13
 Gas Sensors 2-Transcutaneous pO2
Blood Gas Measurement
1-2. Blood oxygenation:
Oxygen saturation-Pulse Oximetry

Advantages
 Easy to use
 Frequent calibration unnecessary
Limitations
 Usually only measured by transillumination
 Limited to tissues that can transmit light
 Highly sensitive to motion
 Venous pulsations can affect results

14
 Gas Sensors 2-Transcutaneous pO2
Blood Gas Measurement
The skin is heated to 43°C to increase local blood flow and enhance
diffusion of O2 through the skin. Mostly used on newborn babies in the
ICU because their skin is thinner

Figure - Cross-sectional view of a transcutaneous oxygen sensor. Heating promotes arterialization.

(From A. Huch and R. Huch, "Transcutaneous, noninvasive monitoring of PO2," Hospital Practice, 1976, 6, 43-52. Used by permission.) 15
 Gas Sensors 3-pH electrode:
Blood Gas Measurement
To measure the acidity or alkalinity of
solutions determined by activities of [OH-]
and [H+]
pH electrode : Ag-AgCl metallic electrode
immersed in a chloride buffer with a very
thin permeable glass membrane that allows
hydrogen ions to diffuse into the buffer
A potentiometric electrode is designed to
measure the potential between the sample
and a buffer solution.
This glass electrode is placed in the blood
sample and a potential difference is generated
across the glass, which is proportional to the
difference in hydrogen ion concentration

16
 Gas Sensors 3-pH electrode:
Blood Gas Measurement
Under normal conditions, the Henderson
equation will give the blood pH

where:
• 6.1 is the acid dissociation constant
of carbonic acid (H2CO3) at normal
body temperature
• [HCO3−] is the concentration of
bicarbonate in the blood in mEq/L
• PaCO2 is the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide in the arterial blood
• (Pa CO2 < 35mmHg) occurs when
there is too little carbon dioxide in
the blood.
• Carbon dioxide concentrations
increase to (PaCO2 > 45 mmHg),
Figure - pH electrode
(From R. Hicks, J. R. Schenken, and M. A. Steinrauf, Laboratory Instrumentation. Hagerstown, MD: Harper & Row, 1974. Used with permission of C.17A.
McWhorter.)
 Gas Sensors 4-CO2 Sensors- The carbon dioxide electrode:
Blood Gas Measurement
The carbon dioxide electrode is a modified pH electrode in contact with sodium
bicarbonate solution and separated from the blood specimen by a rubber or Teflon
semi-permeable membrane.
• In liquid solutions: pCO2 with a selective pH electrode
• In air or other gases : absorption of infrared by CO2

Figure - PCO electrode

2
(From R. Hicks, J. R. Schenken, and M. A. Steinrauf, Laboratory
Instrumentation. Hagerstown, MD: Harper & Row, 1974. Used with
permission of C. A. McWhorter.)
18
 Gas Sensors 4-CO2 Sensors- The carbon dioxide electrode:
Blood Gas Measurement
PCO electrode
2
- Consists of pH electrode covered by a CO2 selective membrane (silicone)
- Electrolyte between electrode and membrane is NaHCO3-NaCl solution
- pH of inner solution lowers when CO2 diffuses through membrane
- Inner glass electrode senses changes in pH
- Overall potential is determined by CO2 concentration in sample
RT
EK ln[CO2]
F

HCO3- solution pH glass electrode

CO2 + H2O ↔ H+ + HCO3-
H+ lowers pH

Membrane
(silicone)
 Gas Sensors 5-Transcutaneous carbon dioxide sensor
Blood Gas Measurement

Figure -Cross-sectional view of a transcutaneous carbon dioxide sensor. Heating the skin promotes arterialization.

(From A. Huch, D. W. Lübbers, and R. Huch, "Patientenuberwachung durch transcutane Pco2 Messung bei gleiechzeiliger koutrolle der relatiuen
Iokalen perfusion," Anaesthetist, 1973, 22, 379. Used by permission.) 20
 Gas Sensors 1. The oximeter catheter system
Blood Gas Measurement
Multi Chemical Sensor
 The oximeter catheter system:
The oximeter catheter system measures oxygen saturation in vivo, using
red 660 nm and infrared 940 nm light emitting diodes (LEDs) and a
photosensor.
The red and infrared LEDs are alternately pulsed in order to use a single
photosensor.

21
 Gas Sensors 1. The oximeter catheter system
Blood Gas Measurement
To oximetry instrument

CVP injection port

Cardiac output Thermistor
Balloon
Transmitting
computer connector fiber-optic
Receiving
fiber-optic
Optical module

Sampling and pressure

Proximal monitoring lumen
(CVP) lumen Balloon inflation
lumen
Distal
(PA) lumen

Figure - The catheter used with the Optic at Oximetry System transmits light to the blood
through a transmitting optical fiber and returns the reflected light through a receiving
optical fiber.
The catheter is optically connected to the oximetry processor through the optical module.
Slide-22
Gas Sensors 2-Cardiac output measured by thermodilution
Blood Gas Measurement Catheter with multiple ports

- Inject cold saline into the right atrium

(intravenous catheter)
- Measure temperature at the pulmonary artery
over time
- Conservation of energy: The total heat content
of the injected saline will be

Slide-23
 Electrochemical sensors.
- Electrochemical sensors are the most versatile and highly developed
chemical sensors.
 They are divided into several types:
• Potentiometric (measure voltage)
• Amperometric (measure current)
• Conductometric (measure conductivity)
 Sometimes the distinction between these types can be blurred.
 In all these sensors, special electrodes are used.

24
  Conductimetric Sensors.
 Measures Electrical Conductance/Resistance of the solution.
 Conductance measurements have relatively Low Sensitivity.
 Electrical Field is generated using sinusoidal(ac) voltage,
which helps in minimizing undesirable effects like:
i. Faradaic processes.
ii. Double layer charging
iii. Concentration polarization.
 Amperometric Biosensors.
 High Sensitivity Biosensor.
 Detects electroactive species present in the biological test
samples.
 Measured Parameter – Current.
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  Amperometric cell principles
 Cottrell equation describes the change in electric current with respect to
time in a controlled potential experiment,

where,
i = current, in unit A
n = number of electrons
F = Faraday constant, 96,485 C/mol
A = area of the (planar) electrode in cm2
cj0 = initial concentration of the reducible analyte j in mol/cm 3;

Dj = diffusion coefficient for species j in cm2/s, t = time in s.

Example
The rate at which oxygen can enter the cell is controlled by the
size of the capillary hole at the top of the sensor. The diffusion-
limited current response is directly proportional to O2 pressure.
26
 Potentiometric Sensors
 Working Principle – When ramp voltage is applied to an
electrode in solution, a current flow occurs because of
electrochemical reactions.
 Measured Parameter – Oxidation / Reduction Potential of an
Electrochemical reactions.
 For voltage: Change in distribution of charge is detected using ion-
selective electrodes, such as pH-meters.

27
28
 References
1. •John G. Webster, Medical Instrumentation: Application and Design,
2. • Brian R. Eggins, Chemical sensors and biosensors,
3. • Gábor Harsányi, Sensors in Biomedical Applications:, Fundamentals,
Technology & Applications, by– Ch7: Biosensors
4. • Electra Gizeli & Christopher R. Lowe, Biomolecular sensors
5. Augustine Ofori Agy, Clayton state university, lecture
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
6. Dónal Leech, Physical Chemistry Laboratory, lectures in
http://www.nuigalway.ie/chem/Donal/Teaching.htm
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