Chapter 10:

Analysis of Unbalanced
Faults
 Fault current calculations

Network

Location of fault

• Prior to the fault:

• Currents stay in the intact network
• During the fault:
• Currents flow from the network into the ground or into another phase of the network
• To calculate these currents, we need a model of the network as seen from the fault
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 2
 Balanced fault current calculations

Network 𝑇𝐻
𝑍 Balanced fault
𝑉 𝑇𝐻

Balanced fault

• A balanced three-phase fault affects all three phases equally

• It does not break the three-phase symmetry of the system
• The fault can be analyzed using a single-phase Thevenin equivalent

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 3

 Unbalanced fault current calculations

Network Unbalanced fault

Network
model?

Unbalanced fault

• Unbalanced faults do not affect all three phases equally

• They break the three-phase symmetry of the system
• Unbalanced faults can not be analyzed using a single-phase model
• Analyzing unbalanced faults in three-phase variables provides little physical insight
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 4
 Symmetrical components Models in symmetrical
components

Positive
Network Unbalanced fault

Negative

Unbalanced fault Zero

• Transform variables from three-phase to symmetrical components

• Decouples three-phase network model into three decoupled models
• Each model represents a symmetrical component
• Using these models simplifies analysis of unbalanced faults
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 5
 notation

Multiplying a phasor by rotates it by 120°

Multiplying a phasor by rotates it by 240°

Multiplying a phasor by leaves it unchanged

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 6

 Concept of symmetrical components
• Any unbalanced three-phase voltage or current can be decomposed
into the sum of three balanced three-phase voltages or currents
called sequence components:

• A zero-sequence component where all three voltages or currents have the

same phase
• A positive-sequence component where the three voltages or currents are
120° out of phase with each other in the positive phase sequence (e.g., a-b-c)
• A negative-sequence component where the three voltages or currents are
120° out of phase with each other but in the opposite phase sequence (e.g.,
a-c-b)

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 7

 Sequence components
𝑉 𝑐 ,1
𝑉 𝑏, 2
𝑉 𝑎 ,0
𝑉 𝑏, 0 𝑉 𝑎 ,1 𝑉 𝑎 ,2
𝑉 𝑐 ,0

𝑉 𝑐 ,2
𝑉 𝑏 ,1

Zero-sequence Positive-sequence Negative-sequence

Subscript 0 Subscript 1 Subscript 2

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 8

 Concept of symmetrical components

𝑉 𝑐 ,1
𝑉𝑐 𝑉 𝑏, 2
𝑉 𝑎 ,0
𝑉 𝑏, 0 𝑉 𝑎 ,1 𝑉 𝑎 ,2
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉 𝑐 ,0 + +
𝑉𝑏 𝑉 𝑐 ,2
𝑉 𝑏 ,1

Unbalanced Zero-sequence Positive-sequence Negative-sequence

voltages component component component

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 9

 Concept of symmetrical components
𝑉 𝑐 ,1
𝑉𝑐 𝑉 𝑏, 2
𝑉 𝑎 ,0
𝑉 𝑏, 0 𝑉 𝑎 ,1 𝑉 𝑎 ,2
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉 𝑐 ,0 + +
𝑉𝑏 𝑉 𝑐 ,2
𝑉 𝑏 ,1

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 10

 Concept of symmetrical components
• Each component is balanced
• Can represent each component by a single phasor

• Zero sequence:

• Positive sequence:

• Negative sequence:

• This applies to currents as well as voltages

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 11
 Zero sequence

𝑉 𝑎 ,0
𝑉 𝑏, 0
𝑉 𝑐 ,0

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 12

 Positive sequence

𝑉 𝑐 ,1

𝑉 𝑎 ,1

𝑉 𝑏 ,1

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 13

 Negative sequence

𝑉 𝑏, 2

𝑉 𝑎 ,2

𝑉 𝑐 ,2

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 14

 Phase a as a function of symmetrical components
𝑉 𝑐 ,1
𝑉𝑐 𝑉 𝑏, 2
𝑉 𝑎 ,0
𝑉 𝑏, 0 𝑉 𝑎 ,1 𝑉 𝑎 ,2
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉 𝑐 ,0 + +
𝑉𝑏 𝑉 𝑐 ,2
𝑉 𝑏 ,1
𝑉 𝑎 ,0 =𝑉 0
𝑉 a , 1=𝑉 1 𝑉 𝑎=𝑉 0 +𝑉 1 +𝑉 2
𝑉 a , 2=𝑉 2
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 15
 Phase b as a function of symmetrical components
𝑉 𝑐 ,1
𝑉𝑐 𝑉 𝑏, 2
𝑉 𝑎 ,0
𝑉 𝑏, 0 𝑉 𝑎 ,1 𝑉 𝑎 ,2
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉 𝑐 ,0 + +
𝑉𝑏 𝑉 𝑐 ,2
𝑉 𝑏 ,1

𝑉 𝑏 , 0=𝑉 0
2
𝑉 𝑏 =𝑉 𝑏,0 +𝑉 𝑏 ,1 +𝑉 𝑏,2 2
𝑉 𝑏,1 =𝑎 𝑉 1 𝑉 𝑏 =𝑉 0+ 𝑎 𝑉 1 +𝑎𝑉 2
𝑉 𝑏, 2=𝑎 𝑉 2
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 16
 Phase c as a function of symmetrical components
𝑉 𝑐 ,1
𝑉𝑐 𝑉 𝑏, 2
𝑉 𝑎 ,0
𝑉 𝑏, 0 𝑉 𝑎 ,1 𝑉 𝑎 ,2
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉 𝑐 ,0 + +
𝑉𝑏 𝑉 𝑐 ,2
𝑉 𝑏 ,1

𝑉 c ,0 =𝑉 0
2
𝑉 c ,1=𝑎𝑉 1 𝑉 𝑐 =𝑉 0 + 𝑎𝑉 1+ 𝑎 𝑉 2
2
𝑉 c ,2 =𝑎 𝑉 2
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 17
 Phase variables from symmetrical components
𝑉 𝑐 ,1
𝑉𝑐 𝑉 𝑏, 2
𝑉 𝑎 ,0
𝑉 𝑏, 0 𝑉 𝑎 ,1 𝑉 𝑎 ,2
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉 𝑐 ,0 + +
𝑉𝑏 𝑉 𝑐 ,2
𝑉 𝑏 ,1
𝑉 𝑎=𝑉 0 +𝑉 1 +𝑉 2

( )( )( )
𝑉𝑎 1 1 1 𝑉0
2
𝑉 𝑏 =𝑉 0+ 𝑎 𝑉 1 +𝑎𝑉 2 𝑉𝑏 = 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑉1
2
𝑉𝑐 1 𝑎 𝑎 𝑉2
2
𝑉 𝑐 =𝑉 0 + 𝑎𝑉 1+ 𝑎 𝑉 2
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 18
 Phase variables from symmetrical components

( )( )( )
𝑉𝑎 𝑉0

( )
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑉𝑏 = 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑉1 𝑨= 1 𝑎
2
𝑎
2 2
𝑉𝑐 1 𝑎 𝑎 𝑉2 1 𝑎 𝑎

𝑽 𝑷= 𝑨𝑽 𝑺

Phase Symmetrical
variables components
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 19
 Symmetrical components from phase variables

( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1
−1 1
𝑨= 1 𝑎
2
𝑎 𝑨 = 1 𝑎 𝑎
2

2 3 2
1 𝑎 𝑎 1 𝑎 𝑎

( )( )( ) ( ) ( )( )
𝑉𝑎 1 1 1 𝑉0 𝑉0 1 1 1 𝑉𝑎
1
𝑉𝑏 = 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑉1 𝑉1 = 1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑉𝑏
2
3 2
𝑉𝑐 1 𝑎 𝑎 𝑉2 𝑉2 1 𝑎 𝑎 𝑉𝑐

𝑽 𝑷= 𝑨𝑽 𝑺 𝑽 𝑺= 𝑨 𝑽 𝑷
−1

Symmetrical Phase
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen
components variables 20
 Currents in symmetrical components

Transformation from phase quantities to symmetrical components

applies to voltages as well as currents

𝑰 𝑷= 𝑨 𝑰 𝑺 𝑰 𝑺= 𝑨
−1
𝑰𝑷

( )( )( ) () ( )( )
𝐼𝑎 1 1 1 𝐼0 𝐼0 1 1 1 𝐼𝑎
1
𝐼𝑏 = 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝐼1 𝐼1 = 1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝐼𝑏
2 3 2
𝐼𝑐 1 𝑎 𝑎 𝐼2 𝐼2 1 𝑎 𝑎 𝐼𝑐

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 21

 Example 10.1
Calculate the sequence components of the following set of balanced voltages:

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 22

 Example 10.2
Calculate the sequence components of the following set of balanced currents:

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 23

 Example 10.3
Calculate the sequence components of the following set of unbalanced voltages:

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 24

 Example 10.4
Calculate the phase voltages from the following sequence components:

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 25

 Relation between the neutral and zero sequence currents

a 𝐼 𝑛= 𝐼 𝑎 + 𝐼 𝑏 + 𝐼 𝑐
𝐼𝑎

() ( )( )
𝑍 𝐼𝑛 𝐼0
1
1 1 1 𝐼𝑎
𝐼1 = 1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝐼𝑏
3 2
𝐼2 1 𝑎 𝑎 𝐼𝑐
n
𝐼𝑐 𝑍 𝑍 1
c b 𝐼 0= ( 𝐼 𝑎 + 𝐼 𝑏 + 𝐼 𝑐 )
3
𝐼𝑏 1
⟹ 𝐼 0= 𝐼 𝑛
3
A zero-sequence current can occur only if the neutral current is not zero i.e., when the neutral is grounded
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 26
 Example 10.5: Zero-sequence and neutral currents
Given , calculate the zero-sequence and neutral currents.

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 27

 Sequence networks
𝑎 • In a three-phase network, if the
𝐼𝑎 voltages or currents are not
𝑍𝑌 balanced, what happens in one
𝐼𝑛
phase affects what happens in
the other phases
𝑉𝑎 𝑛
𝐼𝑐
𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑛 • This coupling makes analysis
𝑐 𝑏 complex
𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑏
𝐼𝑏 • Using symmetrical components,
𝑔 we can replace three-phase
networks by decoupled
sequence networks

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 28

 Sequence networks representation of a load
Write KVL around the loop a-n-g
𝑎
𝐼𝑎 𝑉 𝑎=𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑌 +𝐼 𝑛 𝑍 𝑛
𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑛
𝐼 𝑛= 𝐼 𝑎 + 𝐼 𝑏 + 𝐼 𝑐
𝑉𝑎 𝑛 𝑉 𝑎=𝐼 𝑎 ( 𝑍 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 ) + 𝐼 𝑏 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑐 𝑍 𝑛
𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑛
𝐼𝑐
𝑐 𝑏 Similarly, around the loops b-n-g
and c-n-g:
𝑉𝑐 𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑏
𝑔 𝑉 𝑏 =𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑏 ( 𝑍 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 ) + 𝐼 𝑐 𝑍 𝑛

𝑉 𝑐 =𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑏 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑐 ( 𝑍 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 )
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 29
 Sequence networks representation of a load
𝑉 𝑎=𝐼 𝑎 ( 𝑍 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 ) + 𝐼 𝑏 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑐 𝑍 𝑛

( )( )( )
𝑉𝑎 𝑍𝑌 + 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑛 𝐼𝑎
𝑉 𝑏 =𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑏 ( 𝑍 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 ) + 𝐼 𝑐 𝑍 𝑛 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑍𝑛 𝑍 𝑌 + 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑛 𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑐 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 𝐼𝑐
𝑉 𝑐 =𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑏 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑐 ( 𝑍 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 )
𝑽 𝑷 = 𝒁𝑷 𝑰 𝑷

Full matrix  coupling between the three phases if the currents are imbalanced
What happens if we convert to symmetrical components?

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 30

 Sequence networks representation of a load
𝑽 𝑷 = 𝒁𝑷 𝑰 𝑷
−1 −1
𝑨 𝑽 𝑷= 𝑨 𝒁 𝑷 𝑰 𝑷

𝑽 𝑺= 𝑨 𝑽 𝑷
−1 𝑰 𝑷= 𝑨 𝑰 𝑺

−1
𝑽 𝑺= 𝑨 𝒁𝑷 𝑨 𝑰𝑺
𝑽 𝑺 =𝒁 𝑺 𝑰 𝑺

( )( )( )
1 1 1 𝑍𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑛 1 1 1
1
𝒁 𝑺 = 𝑨− 1 𝒁 𝑷 𝑨= 1 𝑎 𝑎
2
𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑌 + 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑛 1 𝑎
2
𝑎
3
1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑌 + 𝑍𝑛 1 𝑎 𝑎2

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 31

 Sequence networks representation of a load

( )( )( )
1 1 1 𝑍𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑛 1 1 1
1
𝒁 𝑺 = 𝑨− 1 𝒁 𝑷 𝑨= 1 𝑎 𝑎
2
𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑌 + 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑛 1 𝑎
2
𝑎
3 2 2
1 𝑎 𝑎 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑌 + 𝑍𝑛 1 𝑎 𝑎

2
1+𝑎 +𝑎 = 0

( )
𝑍 𝑌 +3 𝑍 𝑛 0 0
𝒁 𝑺= 0 𝑍𝑌 0
0 0 𝑍𝑌
𝑉 0= ( 𝑍 𝑌 +3 𝑍 𝑛 ) 𝐼 0= 𝑍 0 𝐼 0

𝑽 𝑺 =𝒁 𝑺 𝑰 𝑺 𝑉 1=𝑍 𝑌 𝐼 1=𝑍 1 𝐼 1
𝑉 2= 𝑍 𝑌 𝐼 2= 𝑍 2 𝐼 2
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 32
 Sequence networks representation of a load
𝑉 𝑎=𝐼 𝑎 ( 𝑍 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 ) + 𝐼 𝑏 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑐 𝑍 𝑛
𝑎
𝐼𝑎
𝑉 𝑏 =𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑏 ( 𝑍 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 ) + 𝐼 𝑐 𝑍 𝑛
𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑛
𝑉 𝑐 =𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑏 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑐 ( 𝑍 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 )
𝑉𝑎 𝑛
𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑛
𝐼𝑐
𝑐 𝑏
𝑉𝑐 𝐼𝑏
𝑉 0= ( 𝑍 𝑌 +3 𝑍 𝑛 ) 𝐼 0= 𝑍 0 𝐼 0
𝑉𝑏
𝑔 𝑉 1=𝑍 𝑌 𝐼 1=𝑍 1 𝐼 1
𝑉 2= 𝑍 𝑌 𝐼 2= 𝑍 2 𝐼 2
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 33
 Sequence networks representation of a load
𝑉 𝑎=𝐼 𝑎 ( 𝑍 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 ) + 𝐼 𝑏 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑐 𝑍 𝑛
• Converting to symmetrical components
decouples the equations 𝑉 𝑏 =𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑏 ( 𝑍 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 ) + 𝐼 𝑐 𝑍 𝑛
• Positive sequence currents
 positive sequence voltages 𝑉 𝑐 =𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑏 𝑍 𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑐 ( 𝑍 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑛 )
• Negative sequence currents
 negative sequence voltages
• Zero sequence currents
 zero sequence voltages 𝑉 0= ( 𝑍 𝑌 +3 𝑍 𝑛 ) 𝐼 0= 𝑍 0 𝐼 0

𝑉 1=𝑍 𝑌 𝐼 1=𝑍 1 𝐼 1
𝑉 2= 𝑍 𝑌 𝐼 2= 𝑍 2 𝐼 2
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 34
 Sequence networks representation of a load
𝐼0
𝑎
𝐼𝑎

𝑍𝑌 𝑉0 𝑍0
𝐼𝑛

𝑉𝑎 𝑛
𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑛 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐼𝑐
𝑐 𝑏
𝑉𝑐 𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑏
𝑉1 𝑍1 𝑉2 𝑍2
𝑔

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 35

 Sequence networks representation of a load
𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼0

𝑉1 𝑍1 𝑉2 𝑍2 𝑉0 𝑍0

𝑍 1 =𝑍 Y 𝑍 2=𝑍 Y 𝑍 0=𝑍 𝑌 + 3 𝑍 𝑛

does not appear in or Because

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 36

 Ungrounded Y connection
Ungrounded Y connection

𝐼0

𝑍𝑛= ∞
𝑉0 𝑍0

𝑍 0= ∞
𝑍 0=𝑍 𝑌 + 3 𝑍 𝑛

No zero-sequence current
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 37
 Balanced set of voltages in positive phase sequence
𝑎
𝐼𝑎 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼0
𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑛

𝑉𝑎 𝑛 𝑉1 𝑍1 𝑉2 𝑍2 𝑉0 𝑍0
𝐼𝑐 𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑛
𝑐 𝑏
𝑉𝑐 𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑏
𝑔

𝑉 1≠ 0
Positive-sequence network is equivalent to the
𝑉 2=0 single-phase representation of a balanced
three-phase system
𝑉 0=0
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 38
 Unbalanced loads
𝑎 𝐼1 𝐼0 𝐼2
𝐼𝑎

𝑍𝐴 𝐼𝑛

𝑉1 𝑍1 𝑉0 𝑍0 𝑉2 𝑍2
𝑉𝑎 𝑛
𝐼𝑐
𝑍𝐶 𝑍𝐵 𝑍𝑛
𝑐 𝑏
𝑉𝑐 𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑏
𝑔

If the load is not balanced, the sequence networks are not decoupled!

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 39

 Example 10.6: Applying imbalanced voltages to a Y-connected load

Each branch of a Y-connected load has an From Example 10.3:

impedance of . The neutral point of this load is
connected to ground through an impedance of .
The following set of unbalanced line-to-neutral
voltages is applied to this load:

Calculate the current in each phase and in the

neutral connection.

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 40

 Example 10.7: Applying imbalanced voltages to a delta-connected load

Repeat the calculations of Example 10.5 assuming that the branch impedances are connected in delta.
Replace the delta-connected load by its Y-connected equivalent.

and because there is no neutral connection in a delta-connected load.

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 41

 Sequence networks representation of generators
a 𝑉 𝑎=𝐸 𝑎 − 𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑌 − 𝐼 𝑛 𝑍 𝑛
𝐼𝑎 𝑉 𝑎=𝐸 𝑎 − 𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑌 − ( 𝐼 𝑎 + 𝐼 𝑏 + 𝐼 𝑐 ) 𝑍 𝑛
𝑉𝑎 𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑛 𝑉 𝑎=𝐸 𝑎 − 𝐼 𝑎 ( 𝑍 ¿ ¿ 𝑌 +𝑍 𝑛)− 𝐼 𝑏 𝑍 𝑛 − 𝐼 𝑐 𝑍 𝑛 ¿
𝐸𝑎
𝑍𝑛
𝐸𝑏 𝐸𝑐
n 𝑉 𝑏 =𝐸𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑏 ( 𝑍 ¿ ¿ 𝑌 +𝑍 𝑛)− 𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑛 − 𝐼 𝑐 𝑍 𝑛 ¿
𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌 𝐼𝑐
b c
𝑉 𝑐 =𝐸 𝑐 − 𝐼 𝑐 ( 𝑍 ¿ ¿ 𝑌 +𝑍 𝑛 )− 𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑛 − 𝐼 𝑐 𝑍 𝑛 ¿
𝐼𝑏

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 42

 Sequence networks representation of generators
𝑉 𝑎=𝐸 𝑎 − 𝐼 𝑎 ( 𝑍 ¿ ¿ 𝑌 +𝑍 𝑛)− 𝐼 𝑏 𝑍 𝑛 − 𝐼 𝑐 𝑍 𝑛 ¿

𝑉 𝑏 =𝐸𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑏 ( 𝑍 ¿ ¿ 𝑌 +𝑍 𝑛)− 𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑛 − 𝐼 𝑐 𝑍 𝑛 ¿

𝑉 𝑐 =𝐸 𝑐 − 𝐼 𝑐 ( 𝑍 ¿ ¿ 𝑌 +𝑍 𝑛 )− 𝐼 𝑎 𝑍 𝑛 − 𝐼 𝑏 𝑍 𝑛 ¿

𝑽 𝑷 =𝑬 𝑷 − 𝒁 𝑷 𝑰 𝑷
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 43
 Sequence networks representation of generators

𝑽 𝑷 =𝑬 𝑷 − 𝒁 𝑷 𝑰 𝑷

−𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏
𝑨 𝑽 𝑷= 𝑨 𝑬𝑷− 𝑨 𝒁𝑷 𝑰𝑷
−𝟏 −𝟏
−𝟏 𝑽 𝑺= 𝑨 𝑬 𝑷 − 𝑨 𝒁 𝑷 𝑨𝑰 𝑺
𝑨 𝑽 𝑷 =𝑽 𝑺
𝑰 𝑷= 𝑨 𝑰 𝑺

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 44

 Sequence networks representation of generators
−𝟏 −𝟏
𝑽 𝑺= 𝑨 𝑬 𝑷 − 𝑨 𝒁 𝑷 𝑨 𝑰𝑺

( )( ) ( )
1 1 1 𝐸𝑎 0 Because the internal
1
𝑨 −𝟏 𝑬 𝑷 = 1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝐸𝑏 = 𝐸1 = 𝑬 𝑺 e.m.f. are a balanced set
3
1 𝑎
2
𝑎 𝐸𝑐 0 of voltages

( )
𝑍 𝑌 +3 𝑍 𝑛 0 0
𝑨
−𝟏
𝒁𝑷 𝑨= 𝒁 𝑺 = 0 𝑍𝑌 0 𝑽 𝑺 =𝑬 𝑺 − 𝒁 𝑺 𝑰 𝑺
0 0 𝑍𝑌
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 45
 Sequence networks representation of generators

𝑽 𝑺 =𝑬 𝑺 − 𝒁 𝑺 𝑰 𝑺

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 46

 Sequence networks representation of generators
𝐼1

a
𝑍1
𝐼𝑎

𝑍𝑌 𝐸
𝐼𝑛
Balanced three-phases 
𝐸𝑎 decoupled sequence networks
𝑍𝑛
Positive-sequence
𝐼0 𝐼2
𝐸𝑏 𝐸𝑐
n

𝑍𝑌
𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌 𝐼𝑐
𝑍2
b c 3 𝑍𝑛

𝐼𝑏

Zero-sequence Negative-sequence
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 47
 Positive sequence impedance of a rotating machine
• Apply positive sequence currents
• Create a flux wave that rotates in the
same direction as the rotor
• Flux wave is in synchronism with the
rotor
• Path of positive sequence magnetic
flux is mostly through iron
• Low reluctance, high impedance

Direction of mechanical rotation

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 48
 Negative sequence impedance of a rotating machine
• Apply negative sequence currents
• Create a flux wave that rotates in the
opposite direction as the rotor
• Flux cannot penetrate the rotor
• Path of negative sequence magnetic
path is mostly through the air
• High reluctance, low impedance

Direction of mechanical rotation

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 49
 Zero sequence impedance of a rotating machine
• Apply zero sequence currents
• Flux created by all three phases are in
phase
• Resulting flux cannot penetrate the
rotor
• Zero sequence magnetic flux path is
mostly through the air
• High reluctance, low impedance

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 50

 Generators sequence impedances
𝐼0 𝐼1 𝐼2

𝑍 𝑔0 𝑍1
𝑍2
3 𝑍𝑛 𝐸

Zero-sequence Positive-sequence Negative-sequence

• Depending on the time frame considered, is the synchronous, transient,

or subtransient impedance
•  zero sequence current can flow through a generator only if it is Y-
connected and the neutral is connected to ground
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 51
 Sequence impedances of lines and cables
• Reactance of lines and cables
reflects their magnetic field
• Depends on the distance and
configuration of the conductors
• If the phases are arranged
symmetrically 

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 52

 Sequence impedances of lines and cables
• Unequal distance between the
phases
 Unequal positive and negative
sequence magnetic fields

• Need regular transposition to
restore balance

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 53

 Transposition

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 54

 Sequence impedances of lines and cables
• Zero-sequence impedance depends on zero-sequence magnetic field
• Very different from magnetic fields created by the positive- or
negative-sequence currents
 Lines have a much lower zero-sequence impedance

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 55

 Sequence impedances of transformers
• Ideal transformer:

𝐼1 𝐼 2
• Primary and secondary currents are
in phase 𝐸1 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝐸2

• Secondary current must balance the

primary current

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 56

 Sequence impedances of transformers
• Primary and secondary
currents must be in balance
in each phase
• Positive-sequence primary 𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐶1
current must be balanced
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
by a positive sequence 𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2
secondary current 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

• Same for the negative- and

zero-sequence currents

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 57

 Sequence impedances of transformers
• Balancing the primary and
secondary positive and
negative sequence currents
is always possible 𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐶1
• Depending on the 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
connection of the primary 𝐴2 𝐵2 𝐶2
and secondary windings, 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

this may or may not be

possible for the zero-
sequence.

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 58

 Grounded-Y / Grounded-Y connection

A B A B
𝑍0
A B

Primary zero-sequence current can be balanced by a secondary zero sequence current.

There is thus a path for zero-sequence currents through this transformer.
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 59
 Grounded-Y / Ungrounded-Y connection

A B A B
𝑍0
A B

Primary zero-sequence current cannot be balanced by a secondary zero sequence

current. Therefore, no zero-sequence current can flow in or out of this transformer.
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 60
 Grounded-Y / Delta connection

A B A B
𝑍0
A B

Primary zero-sequence current can be balanced by a circulating zero sequence in

the secondary. There is thus a path for zero sequence currents on the grounded-Y
side, but not on the delta side.
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 61
 Ungrounded-Y / Delta connection

A B A B
𝑍0
A B

There is no path for a zero-sequence current on the primary side. No zero-sequence

current can therefore flow in or out of this transformer.

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 62

 Delta / Delta connection
A B A B
𝑍0
A B

While balanced zero-sequence currents can circulate within the windings, they
cannot flow in or out of this transformer.

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 63

 Effect of transformer connections on zero-sequence
A B A B A B A B
𝑍0 𝑍0
A B A B

A B A B A B A B
𝑍0 𝑍0
A B A B

A B A B
𝑍0
A B

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 64

 Summary
• Variable transformation from phase voltages and currents to positive-,
negative-, and zero-sequence voltages and currents
• Applying this transformation to balanced three-phase devices results in
decoupled positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence models of these
devices.
• Each device (line, load, generator, transformer) has a positive-, a
negative-, and a zero-sequence impedance

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 65

 Sequence impedances
• Positive-sequence impedance
• Same as impedance of single-phase representation of three-phase circuits
• Negative-sequence impedance
• Equal to positive-sequence impedance for components that do not differentiate
between the phase sequences
• for passive loads, transformers and transposed lines
• for generators, motors and un-transposed lines

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 66

 Sequence impedances
• Zero-sequence impedance
• Usually different from and
• Because , is infinite if there is no connection between neutral and ground
• Because primary and secondary currents must be balanced, the connection of
a transformer windings affects its zero-sequence model
• Some transformer connections block zero sequence currents

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 67

 Building sequence networks
• Gather decoupled models of all network devices in terms of
symmetrical components
• Combine these models according to the topology of the network
 Decoupled positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence networks

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 68

 Example 10.8: Sequence networks
A B 𝐿1 C 𝐿2 D E

𝐺1 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝐺2
F

𝐺3 𝑇3
0.5 0.2 0.18
0.33 0.15 0.15
0.275 0.1 0.12
0.2 0.2 0.2
System is assumed unloaded 0.167 0.167 0.167
and operating at nominal voltage 0.143 0.143 0.143
0.083 0.083 0.4
0.103 0.103 0.6
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 69
 Example 10.8: Positive sequence network
A B 𝐿1 C 𝐿2 D E

𝐺1 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝐺2
F

𝐺3 𝑇3
𝑗 0.5 A 𝑗 0.2 B 𝑗 0.083 C 𝑗 0.103 D 𝑗 0.167 E 𝑗 0.33 0.5
𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2 0.33
𝐺1 𝐺2
1.0∠0 ° 𝑗 0.275 F 𝑗 0.143 1.0∠0 ° 0.275
𝐺3 𝑇3 0.2
1.0∠0 ° 0.167
0.143
0.083
0.103
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 70
 Example 10.8: Negative sequence networks
A B 𝐿1 C 𝐿2 D E

𝐺1 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝐺2
F

𝐺3 𝑇3
0.2
𝑗 0.2 A 𝑗 0.2 B 𝑗 0.083 C 𝑗 0.103 D 𝑗 0.167 E 𝑗 0.15 0.15
𝐺1 𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2 𝐺2 0.1
𝑗 0.1 F 𝑗 0.143 0.2
𝐺3 𝑇3 0.167
0.143
0.083
0.103
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 71
 Example 10.8: Zero sequence networks
A B 𝐿1 C 𝐿2 D E

𝐺1 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝐺2
F

𝐺3 𝑇3
0.18
0.15
𝑗 0.18 A 𝑗 0.2 B 𝑗 0.4 C 𝑗 0.6 D 𝑗 0.167 E 𝑗 0.15 0.12
𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2 0.2
𝐺1 𝐺2
𝑗 0.12 F 𝑗 0.143 0.167
𝐺3 𝑇3 0.143
0.4
0.6
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 72
 Thevenin equivalents of sequence networks
• To study balanced faults, we used Thevenin equivalents of the single-
phase representation of the network
• To study unbalanced faults, we will use Thevenin equivalents of the
positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence networks

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 73

 Example 10.9: Thevenin equivalents of sequence networks
𝑗 0.18 A 𝑗 0.2 B 𝑗 0.4 C 𝑗 0.6 D 𝑗 0.167 E 𝑗 0.15
𝐺1 𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2 𝐺2
𝑗 0.12 F 𝑗 0.143
𝐺3 𝑇3

Zero-sequence Thevenin equivalent at node C:

𝑇𝐻 , 0
𝑍 𝐶 = 𝑗 ( 0.2+0.4 )= 𝑗 0.6 𝑝 . 𝑢 .

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 74

 Example 10.9: Thevenin equivalents of sequence networks
𝑗 0.5 A 𝑗 0.2 B 𝑗 0.083 C 𝑗 0.103 D 𝑗 0.167 E 𝑗 0.33
𝐺1 𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2 𝐺2
1.0∠0 ° 𝑗 0.275 F 𝑗 0.143 1.0∠0 °
𝐺3 𝑇3
1.0∠0 °

Positive-sequence Thevenin equivalent at node C:

𝑇𝐻,1
𝑍 = 𝑗 ( 0.33+0.167+0.103 ) ∥ 𝑗 ( 0.5+0.2+0.083 ) ∥ 𝑗 ( 0.275+0.143 )= 𝑗 0.187𝑝.𝑢.
𝐶

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 75

 Example 10.9: Thevenin equivalents of sequence networks
𝑗 0.2 A 𝑗 0.2 B 𝑗 0.083 C 𝑗 0.103 D 𝑗 0.167 E 𝑗 0.15
𝐺1 𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2 𝐺2
𝑗 0.1 F 𝑗 0.143
𝐺3 𝑇3

Negative-sequence Thevenin equivalent at node C:

𝑇𝐻 ,2
𝑉 𝐶 =0
𝑇𝐻,2
𝑍 = 𝑗 ( 0.15+0.167+0.103 ) ∥ 𝑗 ( 0.2+0.2+ 𝑗0.083 ) ∥ 𝑗 ( 0.1+0.143 ) = 𝑗0.117𝑝.𝑢.
𝐶
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 76
 Example 10.9: Thevenin equivalents of sequence networks
𝑗 0.187 C

Positive-sequence Thevenin equivalent: 1.0∠0 °

𝑗 0.117 C

Negative-sequence Thevenin equivalent:

𝑗 0.6 C

Zero-sequence Thevenin equivalent:

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 77

 Analyzing unbalanced faults

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 78

 Analyzing unbalanced faults

System c
𝑘
b
a
Postulated location
of a fault

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 79

 Pre-fault conditions
• System is balanced before the fault
• Symmetrical component networks will
be coupled only at the point of the
fault
• Neglect pre-fault load currents
• All voltages are equal to the pre-fault
System c voltage at the point of the fault
𝑘
b • Neglect resistances, shunt
a admittances, rotor saliency,
saturation
• Commercial-grade fault calculation
programs do not make these
assumptions

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 80

 Pre-fault conditions
Thevenin equivalent looking into the
network from node :
𝑇𝐻 , 1
𝑍𝑘 𝐼1

𝑇𝐻 ,1
𝑉𝑘 𝑉1 Positive sequence

System c 𝑇𝐻 , 2
𝑍𝑘 𝐼2
𝑘
b Negative sequence
𝑉2
a
𝑇𝐻 , 0
𝑍𝑘 𝐼0

𝑉0 Zero sequence

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 81

 Analyzing balanced faults using symmetrical components

• Balanced three-phase fault at

node :
•
c
𝑘
b
𝐼𝑐
a
𝐼𝑏
𝐼𝑎

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 82

 Analyzing balanced faults using symmetrical components

• Balanced three-phase fault at

node : 𝑇𝐻 , 1
𝑍𝑘 𝐼1
𝑇𝐻 , 1
• 𝑉 𝑘
𝑉
𝑇𝐻 ,1
𝑘 𝑉1 𝐼 1= 𝑇𝐻 ,1
• 𝑍 𝑘
𝑇𝐻 , 2
𝑍𝑘 𝐼2
𝑉2 𝐼 2= 0
𝑇𝐻 , 0
𝑍𝑘 𝐼0

𝑉0 𝐼 0= 0

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 83

 Analyzing balanced faults using symmetrical components

Balanced three-phase fault at node :

𝑇𝐻 , 1
𝑍𝑘 𝐼1
𝑉1
𝑇𝐻 ,1
𝑉𝑘 𝑉1 𝐼 1= 𝑇𝐻 ,1
𝑍𝑘
A balanced fault creates balanced fault 𝑇𝐻 , 2
𝑍𝑘 𝐼2
currents 𝑉2 𝐼 2= 0
We already knew that, but it is nice to
check it using symmetrical components 𝑇𝐻 , 0
𝑍𝑘 𝐼0

𝑉0 𝐼 0= 0

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 84

 Single-line-to-ground fault at node
• Pre-fault:
• Without loss of generality,
assume that the fault is on phase
a
c
𝑘
b
𝐼𝑐
a
𝐼𝑏
•
𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝐹 •

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 85

 Single-line-to-ground fault at node
𝑇𝐻 , 1
𝑍𝑘 𝐼1
• A single-line-to-ground fault
𝑉
𝑇𝐻 ,1
1 connects the three sequence
𝑘
𝐼𝐹
3 networks in series
𝑇𝐻 , 2
𝑍𝑘 𝐼2 •
•
𝑇𝐻 , 0
𝑍𝑘 𝐼0

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 86

 Single-line-to-ground fault at node
𝑇𝐻 , 1
𝑍𝑘 𝐼1 •
𝑇𝐻 ,1
𝑉𝑘
1
𝐼𝐹
𝑇𝐻 , 2
3
𝑍𝑘 𝐼2

𝑇𝐻 , 0
𝑍𝑘 𝐼0

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 87

 Example 10.10: Single-line-to-ground at bus C

A B 𝐿1 C 𝐿2 D E

𝐺1 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝐺2
F SLG

𝐺3 𝑇3

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 88

 Example 10.10: Single-line-to-ground at bus
C
From Example 10.9:
𝑗 0.187 C
1
Positive sequence 1.0∠0 ° 𝐼𝐹
3
𝑗 0.117 C 3 × 1.0∠ 0 °
𝐼𝐹= =3.32 ∠ − 90 ° 𝑝 .𝑢 .
Negative sequence 𝑗 ( 0.6 +0.187 +0.117 )

𝑗 0.6 C

Zero sequence

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 89

 Importance of ground connections
𝑗 0.18 A 𝑗 0.2 B 𝑗 0.4 C 𝑗 0.6 D 𝑗 0.167 E 𝑗 0.15
Zero sequence circuit with
delta-grounded Y: 𝐺1 𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2 𝐺2
𝑗 0.12 F 𝑗 0.143
𝐺3 𝑇3

𝑗 0.18 A 𝑗 0.2 B 𝑗 0.4 C 𝑗 0.6 D 𝑗 0.167 E 𝑗 0.15

Zero sequence circuit with
delta-Y: 𝐺1 𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2 𝐺2
𝑗 0.12 F 𝑗 0.143
𝐺3 𝑇3

𝑇𝐻 , 0 !
𝑍? 𝐶 =∞
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 90
 Importance of ground connections

• Is having a zero fault current a good thing or a bad thing?

• For the protection system to operate, there must be a large
enough fault current
• Undetected faults represent a safety hazard because a normal
action can then have unexpected consequences

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 91

 Line-to-line fault at node
• Pre-fault:

• Without loss of generality,

assume that the fault is between
c
𝑘 phases b and c
b
𝐼𝑐
a 𝐼𝐹
𝐼𝑏
𝐼𝑎

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 92

 Line-to-line fault at node

•
c
𝑘
b
𝐼𝑐
a 𝐼𝐹
𝐼𝑏
𝐼𝑎

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 93

 Line-to-line fault at node
𝑇𝐻 , 1
𝑍𝑘 𝐼1 𝐼 2 𝑍 𝑇𝐻
𝑘
,2

𝑇𝐻 ,1
𝑉𝑘

𝑇𝐻 , 2
𝑍𝑘 𝐼2

𝑇𝐻 , 0
𝑍𝑘 𝐼0 •

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 94

 Example 10.11: Line-to-line (LL) fault
A B 𝐿1 C 𝐿2 D E

𝐺1 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝐺2
F LL

𝐺3 𝑇3
From Example 10.9:
Positive sequence Negative sequence Zero sequence
𝐼1
𝑗 0.187 C C 𝑗0.117 𝑗0.117 C 𝑗 0.6 C

1.0∠0 °

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 95

 Example 10.11: Line-to-line (LL) fault
A B 𝐿1 C 𝐿2 D E

𝐺1 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝐺2
F LL

𝐺3 𝑇3
From Example 10.9:
Positive sequence Negative sequence

𝑗 0.187 C
𝐼1 𝑗 0.117 𝑗 0.117 C 3 𝑉𝑘
𝑇𝐻 , 1
C
𝐼𝐹= 𝐼 1 =− 𝑗 √ 3 ×
𝑗 √3 𝑇𝐻 , 1
𝑍𝑘 + 𝑍𝑘
𝑇𝐻 ,2

1.0∠0 °
1.0 ∠0 °
𝐼 𝐹 =− 𝑗 √ 3 × =−5.70 ∠ 0 °𝑝 .𝑢.
𝑗 ( 0.187+0.117 )
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 96
 Double line-to-line to ground fault at node
• Pre-fault:
• Without loss of generality,
assume that the fault is between
phases b and c and ground
a
𝑘
b
𝐼𝑎
c
𝐼𝑏
𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑔 •

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 97

 Double line-to-line to ground fault at node
•
•
•
a
𝑘
b
𝐼𝑎
c
𝐼𝑏
𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑔

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 98

 Double line-to-line to ground fault at node
𝑇𝐻 , 1
𝑍𝑘 𝐼1

𝑉𝑘
𝑇𝐻 ,1 What connection of the
sequence networks models:
𝑇𝐻 , 2 •
𝑍𝑘 𝐼2

𝑇𝐻 , 0
𝑍𝑘 𝐼0

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 99

 Double line-to-line to ground fault at node
𝑇𝐻 , 1
𝑍𝑘 𝐼1
•
𝐼2 𝐼0
𝑇𝐻 ,1 𝑇𝐻 , 0
𝑉𝑘 𝑉 0=𝑉 1 =𝑉 2 𝑍
𝑇𝐻 , 2
𝑘 𝑍𝑘

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 100

 Double line-to-line to ground fault at node
•
𝑇𝐻 , 1
𝑍𝑘 𝐼1

𝐼2 𝐼0 •
𝑇𝐻 ,1 𝑇𝐻 , 0
𝑉𝑘 𝑉 0=𝑉 1 =𝑉 2 𝑇𝐻 , 2
𝑍𝑘 𝑍𝑘

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 101

 Example 10.12
From Example 10.9: •

𝑗0.187 𝑝.𝑢. 𝐼1 •

𝐼2 𝐼0
1.0 ∠0 ° •
𝑉 0= 𝑉 1 =𝑉 𝑗20.117 𝑝.𝑢. 𝑗0.6 𝑝.𝑢. •

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 102

 Unbalanced fault calculations in large networks

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 103

 Unbalanced faults in large networks
• Small networks  calculate Thevenin equivalents by hand
• Large networks  need systematic scalable technique
1. Build the admittance matrices of the decoupled, pre-fault positive-,
negative, and zero-sequence networks
2. Invert these matrices to obtain the corresponding impedance
matrices
3. The diagonal elements of these impedance matrices are the
Thevenin equivalent impedances of the sequence networks
4. Connect these Thevenin equivalent impedances as before to
calculate the fault currents

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 104

 Unbalanced faults at node in a large network

a
𝑘
b
𝐼𝑎
c
𝐼𝑏
𝐼𝑐

𝑇𝐻 , 2 𝑇𝐻 , 0
𝑍
𝑇𝐻 , 1
𝑘
𝑍𝑘 𝑍𝑘

𝑉 𝑇𝐻
𝑘
,1

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 105

 Single-line-to-ground fault at node
𝑇𝐻 , 1
𝑍𝑘 𝐼1

𝑉𝑘
𝑇𝐻 ,1
1
𝐼𝐹
3
𝑇𝐻 , 2
𝑍𝑘 𝐼2

𝑇𝐻 , 0
𝑍𝑘 𝐼0

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 106

 Example 10.13
A B 𝐿1 C 𝐿2 D E

𝐺1 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝐺2
F

𝐺3 𝑇3

Single-line-to-ground fault at every node of this network?

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 107

 Example 10.13: Impedance diagrams
𝑗 0.5 A 𝑗 0.2 B 𝑗 0.083 C 𝑗 0.103 D 𝑗 0.167 E 𝑗 0.33
𝐺1 𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2 𝐺2
Positive sequence 1.0∠0 ° 𝑗 0.275 F 𝑗 0.143 1.0∠0 °
𝐺3 𝑇3
1.0∠0 °

𝑗 0.2 A 𝑗 0.2 B 𝑗 0.083 C 𝑗 0.103 D 𝑗 0.167 E 𝑗 0.15

Negative sequence 𝐺1 𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2 𝐺2
𝑗 0.1 F 𝑗 0.143
𝐺3 𝑇3

𝑗 0.18 A 𝑗 0.2 B 𝑗 0.4 C 𝑗 0.6 D 𝑗 0.167 E 𝑗 0.15

Zero sequence 𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2
𝐺1 𝐺2
𝑗 0.12 F 𝑗 0.143
𝐺3 𝑇3
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 108
 Example 10.13: Positive-sequence admittances
− 𝑗2 A − 𝑗5 B − 𝑗 12 C - D − 𝑗6 E − 𝑗3
𝐺1 𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2 𝐺2
1.0∠0 ° − 𝑗 3.64 F − 𝑗 7 1.0∠0 °
𝐺3 𝑇3
1.0∠0 °

( )
−7 5 0 0 0 0
¿ 5 −17 12 ¿ 0 0 0
𝑌 1= 𝑗 0 12 −28.71 9.71 0 7
0 0 9.71 −15.71 6 0
¿0 0 0 ¿ 6 −9 0
0 0 7 0 0 −10.64

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 109

 Example 10.13: Negative-sequence admittances
− 𝑗5 A − 𝑗5 B − 𝑗 12 C − 𝑗 9.71 D − 𝑗6 E − 𝑗 6.66
𝐺1 𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2 𝐺2
− 𝑗 10 F − 𝑗7
𝐺3 𝑇3

( )
− 10 5 0 0 0 0
¿ 5 −17 12 ¿ 0 0 0
𝑌 2= 𝑗 0 12 −28.75 9.71 0 7
0 0 9.71 − 15.71 6 0
¿0 0 0 ¿ 6 −12.66 0
0 0 7 0 0 − 17

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 110

 Example 10.13: Zero-sequence admittances
− 𝑗 5.55A − 𝑗5 B − 𝑗 2.5 C − 𝑗 1.66 D − 𝑗6 E − 𝑗 6 .67
𝐺1 𝑇1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑇2 𝐺2
− 𝑗 8 .33 F − 𝑗 7
𝐺3 𝑇3

( )
−5.55 0 0 0 0 0
¿ 0 −7.5 2.5 ¿ 0 0 0
𝑌 0= 𝑗 0 2.5 − 4.16 1.66 0 0
0 0 1.66 −1.66 0 0
¿0 0 0 ¿ 0 − 6.67 0
0 0 0 0 0 − 8.33

© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 111

 Example 10.13: Impedance matrices

( )
0.257 0.160 0.120 0.099 0.066 0.079
¿ 0.160 0.224 0.168 ¿ 0.139 0.093 0.110
Positive sequence 𝑍 1 = 𝑗 0.120 0.168 0.187 0.156 0.104 0.123
0.099 0.139 0.156 0.214 0.143 0.102
¿ 0.066 0.093 0.104 ¿ 0.143 0.206 0.068
0.079 0.110 0.123 0.102 0.068 0.175

( )
0.137 0.074 0.048 0.036 0.017 0.020
¿ 0.074 0.149 0.096 ¿ 0.073 0.034 0.040
𝑍 2= 𝑗 0.048 0.096 0.116 0.088 0.042 0.048
Negative sequence 0.036 0.073 0.088 0.144 0.068 0.036
¿ 0.017 0.034 0.042 ¿ 0.068 0.111 0.017
0.020 0.040 0.048 0.036 0.017 0.079

( )
0.180 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Zero sequence ¿ 0.000 0.200 0.200 ¿ 0.200 0.000 0.000
𝑍 0= 𝑗 0.000 0.200 0.600 0.600 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.200 0.600 1.202 0.000 0.000
¿ 0.000 0.000 0.000 ¿ 0.000 1.500 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.120
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 112
 Example 10.13: SLG and LLL faults at all
buses
A B 𝐿1 C 𝐿2 D E

𝐺1 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝐺2
F

𝐺3 𝑇3
Node Single-phase fault Three-phase fault
A 0.18 0.257 0.137 5.226 3.891
B 0.2 0.224 0.149 5.236 4.464
C 0.6 0.187 0.116 3.322 5.348
D 1.202 0.214 0.144 1.923 4.673
E 1.500 0.206 0.111 1.651 4.854
F 0.120 0.175 0.079 8.021 5.714
© 2023 Daniel Kirschen 113