Hybrid Energy Systems

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Raghu Engineering College
Dakamarri, India
 Introduction
• The word ‘energy’ itself is derived from the Greek word ‘en-ergon’,
which means ‘in-work’ or ‘work content’. The work output depends on
the energy input. Energy can be defined as the ability to do work.

• Major Energy Consumptions in the areas/sectors of:

Standard of Living
 Classification of Energy Sources
• Energy can be classified into several types based on
the following criteria:
– Primary and Secondary energy
• Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature.
• Primary energy sources are costly converted in industrial utilities into secondary
energy sources.

– Commercial and Non commercial energy

• Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc. (Commercial)
• Firewood, cattle dung , agricultural wastes etc. (Non-commercial)

– Renewable and Non-Renewable energy

• Solar, Wind, Hydro, Biomass, Wave, Fossil fuels etc.
– Conventional and Non-conventional energy

Energy recieved from raw energy source

Energy yield ratio 
Energy spent to obtain raw energy source
 Energy Chain

• The sequence of energy transformation between

primary (raw energy) and secondary energy (usable
energy) is known as Energy Chain or Energy Route.
Common forms of energy
Advantages and Disadvantages of Conventional
Sources of Energy
Greenhouse Effect
 Sustainable Development

• Sustainable development is development that

meets the needs of the present, without
compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.
 Importance of Renewable Energy

• Renewable energy is important because of

the benefits it provides:
– Environmental Benefits (less greenhouse gasses, less
pollution)
– Sustainability (Long term benefits, Sustainable
Development)
– Economy (Constant growth)
– Reduce Import (Fossil fuels)
Salient Features of Non Conventional Energy sources
World Energy Status
 Energy Scenario in India

8.35%
1.94%
12.65%
68.6%
12.92%
12%
66.6%
16.52%

As on 31.03.2014 by Insight Survey

 The Energy Conservation Act, 2001
• An Act to provide for efficient use of energy and its
conservation and for matters connected therewith or
incidental thereto.

• The Act empowers the Central Government and, in some

instances, State Governments to:
– specify energy consumption standards for notified equipment and
appliances;
– direct mandatory display of label on notified equipment and appliances;
– prohibit manufacture, sale, purchase and import of notified equipment and
appliances not conforming to energy consumption standards;
– notify energy intensive industries, other establishments, and commercial
buildings as designated consumers;
– establish and prescribe energy consumption norms and standards for
designated consumers;
– prescribe energy conservation building codes for efficient use of energy and
its conservation in new commercial buildings having a connected load of 500
kW or a contract demand of 600 kVA and above;
 Bureau of Energy Efficiency
• With effect from such date as the Central Government may, by notification,
appoint, there shall be established, for the purposes of this Act, a Bureau to
be called the Bureau of Energy Efficiency or BEE.

• Functions of BEE:
– arrange and organize training of personnel and specialists in the techniques for efficient use
of energy and its conservation;
– develop testing and certification procedures and promote testing facilities;
– strengthen consultancy services;
– create awareness and disseminate information;
– promote research and development;
– formulate and facilitate implementation of pilot projects and demonstration projects;
– promote use of energy efficient processes, equipment, devices and systems;
– take steps to encourage preferential treatment for use of energy efficient equipment or
appliances;
– promote innovative financing of energy efficiency projects;
– give financial assistance to institutions for promoting efficient use of energy and its
conservation;
– prepare educational curriculum on efficient use of energy and its conservation and
– implement international co-operation programmes relating to efficient use of energy and its
conservation.
 What are Energy Efficiency Label?

• Informative label affixed to manufactured products

describing the product’s energy performance
(energy consumption, energy efficiency, energy cost
or combinations thereof) enabling consumers to
make informed purchase.
Type of Labels
Acid Rain
 Various Aspects of Energy Conservation

• Economic aspect:
– Reduction in cost of product
– New job opportunities
• Environmental aspect:
– Reduce emission of greenhouse gasses
• Conservation of Non-Renewable Energy aspect:
– Development of Renewable energy sources
– Conserve fossil fuel for future
 Principle of Energy Conservation

• Recycling of waste-
• Modernization of technology-
• Waste heat utilization-
• Proper housekeeping-
• Judicial use of proper types of energy-
• Judicial use of proper type of fuel-
• Adopting daylight saving time-
• Proper operation and maintenance-
ECOs (Energy conservation Opportunities)
• Class A. Simple ECOs (30-40%)
– Switch of the load when not in use.

– Changing from Electrical heating to Solar heating.

– Proper housekeeping.

– Reducing peak demand.

– Use of modern automated switches and thermostatic control.

– Replacement of old devices.

• Class B. Intermediate ECOs (10-20%)

– Power production and transmission development though automation.

• Class C. Comprehensive ECOs (40-60%)

– Plant and manufacturing industry modification.
 Global Climate change
• Fossil fuels – coal, oil and gas – are by far the largest
contributor to global climate change,
• accounting for over 75 per cent of global greenhouse gas
emissions and nearly 90 per cent of all carbon dioxide
emissions.
• As greenhouse gas emissions blanket the Earth, they trap the
sun’s heat. This leads to global warming and climate change.
• Warmer temperatures over time are changing weather
patterns and disrupting the usual balance of nature.
• This poses many risks to human beings and all other forms
of life on Earth.
 Causes of Climate change
• Generating power
• Manufacturing goods
• Cutting down forests
• Using transportation
• Producing food
• Powering buildings
• Consuming too much
 Effects of Climate change
• Hotter temperatures
• More severe storms
• Increased drought
• A warming, rising ocean
• Loss of species
• Not enough food
• More health risks
• Poverty and displacement
Green house effect
Acid Rains
 Renewable energy systems
• Hydro power
Solar energy
Wind energy
Geo thermal energy
Tidal power
Ocean wave energy
Bio mass
 Renewable Electricity – Key elements
• Diverse sources: Renewable electricity can be generated from a variety
of sources
• Intermittency: a challenge for integrating them into the grid, but there
are a number of solutions, such as energy storage and demand
response.
• Grid integration: This can require changes to the grid infrastructure and
operating procedures.
• Economics: need for more investment in renewable energy
infrastructure and the development of new technologies.
• Environmental benefits: Renewable electricity is a clean source of
energy that does not produce greenhouse gas emissions or air
pollution.
• Social benefits: Renewable energy can create jobs and economic
development in rural areas. It can also help to reduce energy poverty in
developing countries.
 Future of energy use
1. Global energy demand is expected to increase.

 The International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts global energy demand

to grow by 1.3% per year to 2040, reaching 324 exajoules (EJ) from
175EJ present.
 This increase is driven by population growth, economic development,
and urbanization in developing countries.

2. Renewable energy is projected to be the fastest-growing source of

energy.

 The IEA projects renewables to meet 80% of global electricity demand

by 2050, up from 28% in 2020.
 Solar and wind power are expected to see the most significant growth,
with solar capacity predicted to increase by 20 times and wind capacity
by 8 times by 2050.
 Future of energy use
3. Energy efficiency improvements are crucial to meeting climate goals.

 The IEA estimates that energy efficiency can contribute 40% of the emissions
reductions needed to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050.
 Buildings and transportation are key sectors where efficiency improvements can
have a significant impact.

4. Decarbonization is driving changes in transportation.

 Electric vehicles (EVs) are projected to reach 60% of global car sales by 2050, up
from 3% in 2020.

5. Hydrogen has potential as a clean energy carrier.

 Green hydrogen, produced using renewable energy, is seen as a promising fuel

for heavy-duty vehicles and industrial applications.
 Advantages of Hybrid systems

Increased Reliability and Energy Security:

 Resilience against outages: By having multiple sources, hybrid

systems are less susceptible to disruptions from any single
source. For example, if the grid goes down, renewable
sources like solar can still provide power.
 Improved system stability: Different energy sources can
complement each other and compensate for their individual
limitations. For example, solar power can be less reliable
during cloudy days, but wind power can fill the gap.
• Reduced reliance on fossil fuels: Integrating renewables
reduces dependence on unreliable fuel sources and volatile
fuel prices.
 Advantages of Hybrid systems

Enhanced Cost-Effectiveness:

 Optimized energy utilization: Hybrid systems can intelligently choose the

most cost-effective source based on availability and price.
 Reduced transmission and distribution costs: Strategically located hybrid
systems can help reduce reliance on long-distance power lines and
associated losses.
• Government incentives: Many governments offer subsidies and tax breaks
for installing renewable energy components in hybrid systems.
 Advantages of Hybrid systems
Environmental Benefits:

 Reduced greenhouse gas emissions: By incorporating renewable

sources, hybrid systems contribute to lowering carbon footprint and mitigating
climate change.
 Reduced air and water pollution: Cleaner energy sources reduce emissions of
harmful pollutants, improving air and water quality.
 Conservation of natural resources: Reliance on limited fossil fuels is
minimized, preserving resources for future generations.
 Solar Geometry

• A sphere of hot gaseous matter

• Diameter, Ds = 1.39×106 km
– (Earth diameter, DE = 1.27×104 km )
• Rotates about its axes (not as a rigid body)
• Takes 27 earth days at its equator and 30 days at polar
• regions.
• The sun has an effective black body temperature of 5777 K
i.e. It is the temperature of a blackbody radiating the same
amount of energy as does the sun.
• Mean earth-sun distance: L = 1.496×108 km
Solar Geometry
 The Sun as a Source of Energy

1 4
Fusion reaction : 4(H1)  He2  26.7 MeV
Solar Energy
 Thermal Radiation

• Thermal radiation is the intermediate portion (0.1 ~

100μm) of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by
a substance as a result of its temperature.

• Thermal radiation heat transfer involves

transmission and exchange of electromagnetic
waves or photon particles as a result of
temperature difference.
 Black Body Radiation
• Planck’s Spectral Distribution of Black Body
Emissive Power:
• The thermal radiation emitted by a black substance covers a
range of wavelength (λ), referred as spectral distribution and
given as:
2
2hc 1
E (  , T )  
 5 hc
e kT
1
Where,
Eλ=Power per m² area per m wavelength
h = Planck's constant (6.626 x 10-34 Watt-sec2)
c = Speed of Light (3 x 108 m/s)
λ = Wavelength (m)
k = Boltzmann Constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
T = Temperature (K)
Solar Radiation Spectrum
Solar Radiation Spectrum
Earth Radiation Spectrum
 Total Emissive Power
• The total black body emissive power is obtained by
integrating the spectral emissive power over the
entire range of wavelengths and derived as

Eb  T 4

Where
σ = Stefan-Boltzman constant
= 5.6697× 10-8 W /m2 .K4
 Extraterrestrial Radiation
• Solar radiation that would be received in the absence of
earth atmosphere.
• Extraterrestrial solar radiation exhibit a spectral distribution
over a ranger of wavelength: 0.1- 2.5 μ m.
– Includes ultraviolet, visible and infrared

Solar Constant, Isc

Solar Constant = Solar radiation intensity upon a surface normal
to sun ray and at outer atmosphere (when the earth is at its
mean distance from the sun).

I sc= 1367 W/m2

Variation of Extraterrestrial Radiation

• Solar radiation varies with the day of the year as the sun-
earth distance varies.
• An empirical fit of the measured radiation data

360n
I ext  I sc [1  0.033 cos( )]
365
Where,

Iext = Extraterrestrial radiation (W/m2)

Isc = Solar constant Since cosine function varies from +1
to -1,
n = days of the year the extra terestrial radiation flux
varies by ―3.3%
 Energy Distribution

30%

19%

51%
 Solar Radiation on Earth’s Surface

Orientation of a surface on earth with respect to sun or normal to

sun’s ray can be determined in terms of basic Earth-Sun angles.
 Air mass
• Used as a measure of the distance travelled by beam radiation
through atmosphere before it reaches a location on the
earth’s surface.
• Defined as the ratio of the mass of the atmospheric through
which beam Radiation passes to the mass it would pass
through if the sun is directly overhead (i.e. at zenith).
• Zenith angle is the angle made by Sun’s rays with the normal
to a horizontal surface.
 Measurement of solar radiation
• Solar radiation data are measured mainly by the following
instruments:

i. Pyranometer:
– A pyranometer is designed to measure global radiation, usually on a
horizontal surface, but can also be used on an inclined surface.
When shaded from direct beam radiation by using a shadow band, a
pyranometer measures diffused radiation.
ii. Pyrheliometer:
– An instrument that measures beam radiation by using a long narrow
tube to collect only beam radiation from the sun at normal
incidence.
iii. Sunshine Recorder:
– It measures the sunshine hours in a day.
 Pyranometer Setup

A pyranometer is a type of actinometer used

for measuring solar irradiance on a planar
surface and it is designed to measure the solar
radiation flux density (W/m2) from the Line drawing overview of a thermopile
hemisphere above within a wavelength range pyranometer, including: (1) cable; (2)
0.3 μm to 3 μm. thumb screw for the sun screen; (3) inner
A thermopile pyranometer is a sensor based dome; (4) thermal sensor; (5) outer dome;
on thermopiles designed to measure the (6) sun screen; (7) humidity indicator; (8)
broadband of the solar radiation flux density desiccant holder; (9) levelling feet; (10)
from a 180° field of view angle. bubble level
 Pyrheliometer Setup

A pyrheliometer is an instrument
for measurement of direct beam
solar irradiance. Sunlight enters
the instrument through a window
and is directed onto a thermopile
which converts heat to an
electrical signal that can be
recorded.

Pyrheliometer: (1) protection cap, (2) window

with heater, (3) sight, (5) sensor, (7) humidity
indicator, (10) cable for heater
Sunshine recorder

A sunshine recorder is a device that

records the amount of sunshine at a
given location. The results provide
information about the weather and
climate as well as the temperature of a
geographical area.
 Basic Definitions

• Radiation = Propagation of electromagnetic energy through free

space.
• Irradiance = Flow (Flux) Intensity of radiant energy (Units W m-2)
• Insolation = Solar irradiance striking Earth.
• Declination = Latitude at which the Sun strikes overhead
• Terrestrial Radiation = Infrared radiation emitted by the Earth.
• Albedo = Fraction of radiation that is reflected by an object
• Zenith Angle = Angle between the sun’s ray and the perpendicular to
the horizontal plane..
• Equinoxes = Days when day = night = 12 hours over all Earth.
• Solstices = Days of extreme declination » Dec21 and June 21.
• Aphelion = Day when Earth is furthest from Sun » July 4.
• Perihelion = Day when Earth is closest to Sun » Jan 3.
 Solar Time (Local Apparent Time)

• Solar time is a calculation of the passage of time based on the Sun's

position in the sky. The fundamental unit of solar time is the day.
• The sun traverses each degree of longitude in 4 min.
• The standard time is converted to solar time by incorporating two
corrections, as follows:

Solar time = Standard time ± 4 (Lst – Lloc) + E

Where,

Lst = standard longitude used for measuring standard time of the country.
Lloc = longitude of the observer’s location.
E = the correction arising out of the variation in the length of the solar day . It is
also known as Equation of Time. 360
= 9.87 sin 2B – 7.53 cos B – 1.5 sin B (min.) Where, B  ( )  (n  81)
365
 Solar Radiation Geometry
• Latitude (Angle of latitude), ϕ:

Angle made by a radial line joining the given location to the centre of the earth with its
projection on the equator plane.
 Solar Radiation Geometry
• Declination, δ:

The angular displacement of the sun from the plane of the earth’s equator.
 360 
  23.45  sin  (284  n)
 365 
 Solar Radiation Geometry
• Hour angle, ω:

The hour angle at any moment is the angle through which the earth must
turn to bring the meridian of the observer directly in line with the sun’s ray.

 (deg .)  ( SolarTime  12 : 00) 15

 Solar Radiation Geometry

• Inclination Angle (altitude), α:

The angle between the sun’s ray and its projection on a horizontal surface.
 Solar Radiation Geometry

• Zenith Angle, θz:

The angle between the sun’s ray and the perpendicular (normal) to the
horizontal plane.
 Solar Radiation Geometry

• Solar Azimuth angle, γs:

The angle on a horizontal plane, between the line due south and the projection of the
sun’s ray on the horizontal plane.

 sin  cos   cos  cos  sin  

 s  cos 
1

 sin  z 
 Solar Radiation Geometry

• Surface Azimuth Angle, γ:

+ve

-ve

The angle in the horizontal plane, between the line due south and the
horizontal projection of the normal to the inclined plane surface (collector).
 Solar Radiation Geometry

• Slope (Tilt Angle), β;

The angle between the inclined plane surface (collector) and the horizontal
plane.

+ve if surface sloping towards south.

 Solar Radiation Geometry

• Angle of Incidence, θi:

The angle between the sun’s ray incident on the plane surface (collector)
and the normal to that surface.
 Angle of Incidence, θi
• In general θi can be expressed as:
cos  i  (cos  cos   sin  sin  cos  ) cos  cos   cos  sin  sin  sin 
 sin  (sin  cos   cos  sin  cos  )

For a surface facing due south, γ = 0

cos  i  cos(   ) cos  cos   sin  sin(   )

For a horizontal surface, β = 0, θi = θz

cos  i  cos  z  cos  cos  cos   sin  sin 

For a vertical surface facing due south, γ = 0, β=90°

cos  i   sin  cos   cos  cos  sin 

 Solar Day Length
• At sunrise, sun rays are parallel to horizontal surface, θi = θz = 90°
• Therefore,

cos  i  0  cos  cos  cos   sin  sin 

  cos 1 ( tan  tan  ) Hour angle

The angle between sunrise and sunset is given by, 2ω

Since 15° of hour angle is equivalent to one-hour duration, the sunshine hour or
daylight hour td can be given as:

 2  1
t d    cos  tan  tan  
 15 
 Solar Collectors
• A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. A collector is
a device for capturing solar radiation.
Classification of Collectors
Types of Collectors
 Flat Plate Collector

Air type and

Water type.

A typical flat-plate collector is a metal box with a glass or plastic cover (called glazing)
on top and a dark-colored absorber plate on the bottom. The sides and bottom of the
collector are usually insulated to minimize heat loss.
 Flat Plate Collector
• Flat-plate collectors are the most common solar collectors for use in
solar water-heating systems in homes and in solar space heating. A flat-plate collector
consists basically of an insulated metal box with a glass or plastic cover (the glazing)
and a dark-colored absorber plate. Solar radiation is absorbed by the absorber plate
and transferred to a fluid that circulates through the collector in tubes. In an
air-based collector the circulating fluid is air, whereas in a liquid-based collector it is
usually water.
• Flat-plate collectors heat the circulating fluid to a temperature considerably less than
that of the boiling point of water and are best suited to applications where the
demand temperature is 30-70°C (86-158°F) and/or for applications that require heat
during the winter months.
• Air-based collectors are typically used for heating buildings and drying crops. Liquid-
based may be glazed or unglazed. Glazed liquid collectors are the commonest type of
solar collector for providing domestic and commercial water and for heating indoor
swimming pools. Unglazed collectors are most often used for heating outdoor pools. A
special type of unglazed collector called a perforated plate collector is used to preheat
ventilation air for commercial buildings or, in some cases, for drying crops.
• Flat collectors can be mounted in a variety of ways, depending on the type of building,
application, and size of collector. Options include mounting on a roof, in the roof itself,
or free-standing.
 Evacuated Tube Solar Collectors
• Evacuated tube solar collectors convert energy from the sun into usable
heat in a solar water heating system. This energy can be used for
domestic and commercial hot water heating, pool heating, space heating
or even air conditioning.
• Construction:
• Evacuated Tube (ET)
– Absorbs solar energy and converts it to usable heat. A vacuum between the two glass layers
insulates against heat loss.
– The Heat Transfer Fin helps to transfer heat to the Heat Pipe.
• Heat Pipe (HP)
– Copper vacuum pipe that transfers the heat from within the ET up to the manifold.
• Manifold
– Insulated box containing the copper header pipe. The header is a pair of contoured copper
pipes with dry connect sockets that the heat pipes plug into.
• Mounting Frame
– Strong and easy to install with a range of attachment options.
Evacuated Tube Solar Collectors
Concentrating Controllers
Parabolic Trough Collector
Parabolic Collector Power Plant
Concentrating Controllers
Concentrating Controllers
Concentrating Controllers
 Solar Heating & Cooling
• Passive solar heating:
– A passive solar heating system is a way for the building materials to collect, store, and
distribute solar energy by natural convection, conduction, and radiation. The building
itself acts as thermal mass to store the heat it collects during the day which is then
released during the night. Homes with high potential for solar electricity usually have
good potential for passive solar heat.

• Five Parts of a Passive Solar Heating System

– Aperture
– Absorber
– Thermal Mass
– Distribution
– Control
 Three Passive Solar Heating Designs

• Direct Gain:
– Direct gain is the simplest and most common passive heating system.
Radiant heat shines directly into the living space through south facing
windows and is absorbed by the thermal mass. The building itself acts
as a storage device for the heat.
• Indirect Gain:
– A dark colored heat collector is placed in front of a window directly in
the sunlight. Sunlight goes through the south facing glass windows
and hits the heat collector. The heat collector in turn heats the air
flowing inside it which creates the natural warm air convection loop.
• Isolated Gain:
– Isolated gain systems collect solar energy in a location separate from
the space desired to be heated.
 Solar Passive Cooling
• Passive cooling systems are least expensive means of cooling a home
which maximizes the efficiency of the building envelope without any use
of mechanical devices.
• It rely on natural heat-sinks to remove heat from the building. They derive
cooling directly from evaporation, convection, and radiation without using
any intermediate electrical devices.
• All passive cooling strategies rely on daily changes in temperature and
relative humidity.
• The applicability of each system depends on the climatic conditions.
• Methods of Passive cooling:
– Natural Ventilation;
– Shading;
– Wind Towers;
– Earth Air Tunnels;
– Evaporative Cooling;
– Passive Down Draught Cooling
Solar Vapour Compression Refrigeration

Refrigerants:
HCFCs (R-22, used in most
homes today) and HFCs (
R-134a, used in most cars)
 Solar Cookers
• Types:
– Box Cooker
– Panel Cooker
– Solar Funnel Cooker
– Parabolic Cooker

Box Cooker:

• Among easiest and most popular to build and use

• Lid of a cardboard box reflects light onto pots under glass
• Advantage of slow, even cooking of large quantities of food
 Panel Cooker

• Sunlight is reflected off of multiple panels onto a pot

under a glass lid or in a bag.
• Can be built quickly and at low cost.
• Many different varieties.
 Solar Funnel Cooker

• Safe, inexpensive and easy to use.

• Concentrates sunlight into a dark pot in a plastic bag.
• Combines best of parabolic and box cookers.
• Anyone can make one.
 Parabolic Cooker

• Highly focused light and high temperatures.

• Cooks nearly as fast as a conventional oven.
• Costly and complicated to make and use – have to
turn frequently to follow the sun.
• Potentially hazardous-not recommended.
 Solar Photovotaic System
• Photovoltaic (PV) systems convert sunlight into electricity.
• Advantages:
– Reliable, modular, durable and generally maintenance free.
– Quite, compatible with all most all environments, respond
instantaneously to solar radiation and have an expected lifespan of 20
years or more.
– Less distribution network is required.
• Disadvantages:
– Cost,
– Low efficiency,
– Large area required to generate desirable power output,
– Solar energy is intermittent, hence backup power supply required.
 Solar Photovotaic System
• Semiconductor:
– A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in
between those of insulators and good conductors. Examples are:
germanium and silicon.
– In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those
materials which have almost an empty conduction band and almost
filled valence band with a very narrow energy gap (of the order of 1
eV) separating the two.
• Types of Semiconductors:
 Solar Photovotaic System
• Intrinsic Semiconductors:
– an intrinsic semiconductor may be defined as one in which the
number of conduction electrons is equal to the number of holes.
 Solar Photovotaic System
• Extrinsic Semiconductors:
– Those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or doping
agent or doping has been added in extremely small amounts (about 1 part
in 108) are called extrinsic or impurity semiconductors.
– Depending on the type of doping material used, extrinsic semiconductors
can be sub-divided into two classes:
• N-type semiconductors and
• P-type semiconductors.

• N-type Extrinsic Semiconductor:

• This type of semiconductor is obtained when a
pentavalent material like antimonty (Sb) is
added to pure silicon crystal.
• In N-type semiconductors, electrons are the
majority carriers while holes constitute the
minority carriers.
 Solar Photovotaic System
• P-type Extrinsic Semiconductor:
– This type of semiconductor is obtained
when traces of a trivalent like boron (B)
are added to a pure silicon crystal. In
this case, the three valence electrons of
boron atom form covalent bonds with
four surrounding germanium atoms but
one bond is left incomplete and gives
rise to a hole as shown in Fig. below.
– Thus, boron which is called an acceptor
impurity causes as many positive holes
in a germanium crystal as there are
boron atoms thereby producing a P-
type (P for positive) extrinsic
semiconductor.
– In this type of semiconductor,
conduction is by the movement of
holes in the valence band.
 Solar Photovotaic System
• Fundamentals:
Key functions of a solar cell:
• absorbs sunlight efficiently
• separates charge (electrons
from “holes”)
• creates an electrical current
and voltage when illuminated
• acts like a battery under
sunlight

Basic silicon photovoltaic (solar) cell operation

 Solar Photovotaic System
• p-n Junction:
– A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of
semiconductor material, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of
semiconductor.
– The "p" (positive) side contains an excess of holes, while the "n"
(negative) side contains an excess of electrons.
– p–n junctions are elementary "building blocks" of most
semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, transistors,
solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the active sites
where the electronic action of the device takes place.
Depletion Region in pn-junction
 Solar Photovotaic System
Energy available in a photon:
E = hν = hc/λ = 1.24/λ eV
 Solar Photovotaic System
• Energy Band Gaps:
 Solar Photovotaic System
• Type of Band Gaps:
• In semiconductor physics, the band gap of a semiconductor is always one
of two types, a direct band gap or an indirect band gap.
– In a direct band gap semiconductor, the top of the valence band and the
bottom of the conduction band occur at the same value of momentum. Ex.:
GaAs, CdTe etc.
– In an indirect band gap semiconductor, the maximum energy of the valence
band occurs at a different value of momentum to the minimum in the
conduction band energy. Ex.: Silicon.
 I-V Characteristics of Solar cell

• The power delivered by a solar cell is the product of current and voltage ( I x V ).
• With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be
at its minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the
solar cells open circuit voltage, or Voc. At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short
circuited, that is the positive and negative leads connected together, the voltage across
the cell is at its minimum (zero) but the current flowing out of the cell reaches its
maximum, known as the solar cells short circuit current, or Isc.
 I-V Characteristics of Solar cell

Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or parallel

combinations, or both to increase the voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the
array panels are connected together in a series combination, then the voltage increases and
if connected together in parallel then the current increases. The electrical power in Watts,
generated by these different photovoltaic combinations will still be the product of the
voltage times the current, ( P = V x I ).
 I-V Characteristics of Solar cell
• Short Circuit Current (ISC):
– The short circuit current ISC corresponds to the short circuit condition when the
impedance is low and is calculated when the voltage equals 0.
I (at V=0) = ISC
– ISC occurs at the beginning of the forward-bias sweep and is the maximum current
value in the power quadrant. For an ideal cell, this maximum current value is the total
current produced in the solar cell by photon excitation.
• Open Circuit Voltage (VOC):
– The open circuit voltage (VOC) occurs when there is no current passing through the
cell.
V (at I=0) = VOC
– VOC is also the maximum voltage difference across the cell for a forward-bias sweep in
the power quadrant.
• Maximum Power (PMAX):
– The power produced by the cell in Watts can be easily calculated along the I-V sweep
by the equation P=IV. At the ISC and VOC points, the power will be zero and the
maximum value for power will occur between the two. The voltage and current at this
maximum power point are denoted as VMP and IMP respectively.
 I-V Characteristics of Solar cell
• Fill Factor (FF):
– The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It is calculated
by comparing the maximum power to the theoretical power (P T) that would be output
at both the open circuit voltage and short circuit current together.
– A larger fill factor is desirable, and corresponds to an I-V sweep that is more square-
like. Typical fill factors range from 0.5 to 0.82. Fill factor is also often represented as a
percentage.

• Efficiency (η):
– Efficiency is the ratio of the electrical power output Pout, compared to the solar power
input, Pin, into the PV cell. Pout can be taken to be PMAX since the solar cell can be
operated up to its maximum power output to get the maximum efficiency.
 I-V Characteristics of Solar cell
• Temperature Measurement Considerations
– The crystals used to make PV cells, like all semiconductors, are sensitive to temperature.
When a PV cell is exposed to higher temperatures, ISC increases slightly,
while VOC decreases more significantly.
Solar Photovotaic System
 Module Structure
• A PV module consists of a number of interconnected solar cells (typically
36 connected in series) encapsulated into a single, long-lasting, stable
unit.
• The two key functions of encapsulation are to prevent mechanical
damage to the solar cells and to prevent water or water vapour from
corroding the electrical contacts.
Solar Photovotaic System
 Maximizing The Solar PV Output And
Load Matching
• Mechanical tracking and orienting the panel to receive
maximum solar radiation.
• Electrically tracking the operating point by manipulating the
load to maximize the power output .
 Maximum Power point Tracker (MPPT)
MMPT is a dc-dc switching voltage regulator. They take the DC input from the solar
panels, change it to high frequency AC, and convert it back down to a different DC
voltage and current to exactly match the panels to the batteries.

Maximum Power Point Tracking is electronic tracking - usually digital. The charge
controller looks at the output of the panels, and compares it to the battery voltage.

Vout =D/(1-D) * Vin

D is the duty cycle of the MOSFET

Wind Energy
 Origin of Wind
• Global Winds:
– Wind is caused by differences in the atmospheric pressure developed due to
uneven or differential heating of the earth.
– When a difference in atmospheric pressure exists, air moves from the higher
to the lower pressure area, resulting in winds of various speeds.
– Globally, the two major driving factors of large-scale wind patterns (the
atmospheric circulation) are the differential heating between the equator
and the poles (difference in absorption of solar energy leading to
buoyancy forces) and the rotation of the planet.
– On a rotating planet, air will also be deflected by the Coriolis effect, except
exactly on the equator.
• Local Winds:
– Wind is caused due to differential heating of land surface and water bodies
due to solar radiation.
– Differential heating of slopes on the hillsides and that of low lands.
Factors Affecting Wind Distribution
 Nature of Wind Flow: Wind Force Scale
General wind classifications Tropical cyclone classifications (all winds are 10-minute averages)
Australian
Beaufort 10-minute 10-minute N Indian SW Indian region NW Pacific NW Pacific NE Pacific &
sustained sustained General term Ocean Ocean N Atlantic
scale South Pacific
winds (knots) winds (km/h)
0 <1 <2 Calm
1 1–3 2–6 Light air
2 4–6 7–11 Light breeze Low Pressure
3 7–10 13–19 Gentle breeze Area
Tropical
disturbance Tropical low
Moderate Tropical Tropical Tropical
4 11–16 20–30 Tropical
breeze depression depression depression
Depression
5 17–21 31–39 Fresh breeze
Depression
6 22–27 41–50 Strong breeze
28–29 52–54 Deep Tropical
7 Moderate gale
30–33 56–61 depression depression
8 34–40 63–74 Fresh gale Moderate
Cyclonic storm tropical Tropical cyclone Tropical
9 41–47 76–87 Strong gale storm
storm Tropical Tropical
10 48–55 89–102 Whole gale Severe Severe storm storm
Severe cyclonic tropical
Tropical cyclone tropical
11 56–63 104–117 Storm storm storm storm
12 64–72 119–133 Severe tropical Hurricane
Tropical cyclone
13 73–85 135–157 Hurricane
cyclone
14 86–89 159–165 Very severe Typhoon Major
Severe tropical hurricane
15 90–99 167–183 cyclonic storm Intense cyclone
16 100–106 185–196 Hurricane tropical Typhoon
cyclone Major
107–114 198–211
hurricane
115–119 213–220 Very intense Severe tropical
17 Super
Super cyclonic tropical cyclone Major
>120 >222 typhoon
storm cyclone hurricane
 Nature of Wind Flow
Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale:
 Wind Speed Variation
• With Height:
– In general, the wind speed increases
with height from the surface to the
upper troposphere.
– The pressure gradient increases with
height.
– The wind speed increasing with
height due to less friction. Near the
ground wind speed become zero due
to surface friction.
– The density of the air is highest at
the surface and decreases with
height.
 Wind Power Applications

• Wind pump
– Water transport in remote areas.
• Off-Grid electrical power source
– House hold applications.
• Grid-connected electrical power source
– Wind farms.
 Types of Wind Turbines

Horizontal Axis Wind Vertical Axis Wind

Turbines (HAWT) Turbines (VAWT)
Components of Wind Turbines
 Types of Wind Turbines

• Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT):

– A HAWT has a similar design to a windmill, it has blades that look like a propeller
that spin on the horizontal axis. Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main
rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and they must be
pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane placed
square with the rotor (blades), while large turbines generally use a wind sensor
coupled with a servo motor to turn the turbine into the wind. Most large wind
turbines have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the rotor into a faster
rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.
• HAWT advantages:
– The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In
some wind shear sites, every ten meters up the wind speed can increase by 20%
and the power output by 34%.
– High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicularly to the wind,
receiving power through the whole rotation. In contrast, all vertical axis wind
turbines, and most proposed airborne wind turbine designs, involve various
types of reciprocating actions, requiring airfoil surfaces to backtrack against the
wind for part of the cycle. Backtracking against the wind leads to inherently
lower efficiency.
 Types of Wind Turbines
• HAWT disadvantages:
– Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and
generator.
– Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly)
being lifted into position.
– Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the appearance
of the landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.
– Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence when
a blade passes through the tower's wind shadow (for this reason, the majority of HAWTs
use an upwind design, with the rotor facing the wind in front of the tower).
– HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the wind.
– HAWTs generally require a braking or yawing device in high winds to stop the turbine
from spinning and destroying or damaging itself.
 Types of Wind Turbines
• Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT):
– Verticalaxis wind turbines, as shortened to VAWTs, have the main
rotor shaft arranged vertically. The main advantage of this
arrangement is that the wind turbine does not need to be pointed into
the wind. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is
highly variable or has turbulent winds.
• VAWT subtypes:
– Darrieus wind turbine
• They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclic stress on the
tower, which contributes to poor reliability. Also, they generally require some
external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor, to start turning, because the
starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or more
blades which results in a higher solidity for the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade
area over the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not held up by guy-wires
but have an external superstructure connected to the top bearing.
 Types of Wind Turbines

• Savonius wind turbine

– A Savonius is a drag type turbine, they are commonly used in cases of high reliability in
many things such as ventilation and anemometers. Because they are a drag type turbine
they are less efficient than the common HAWT. Savonius are excellent in areas of
turbulent wind and self starting.
• VAWT advantages:
– No yaw mechanisms is needed.
– A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to
maintain the moving parts.
– VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than the typical the HAWTs.
– VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
– VAWTs situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations
where rooftops, mesas, hilltops, ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind
and increase wind velocity.
 Types of Wind Turbines
• VAWT disadvantages:
– Most VAWTs have a average decreased efficiency from a common
HAWT, mainly because of the additional drag that they have as their
blades rotate into the wind. Versions that reduce drag produce more
energy, especially those that funnel wind into the collector area.
– Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are
lower and do not take advantage of higher wind speeds above.
 Wind Energy Conversion Systems

• A WECS is a structure that transforms the kinetic energy of

the incoming air stream into electrical energy.
• This conversion takes place in two steps, as follows.
– The extraction device, named wind turbine rotor turns under the wind
stream action, thus harvesting a mechanical power. The rotor drives a
rotating electrical machine, the generator, which outputs electrical power.
• The energy conversion chain is organized into four
subsystems:
– aerodynamic subsystem, consisting mainly of the turbine rotor, which is
composed of blades, and turbine hub, which is the support for blades;
– drive train, generally composed of: low-speed shaft – coupled with the
turbine hub, speed multiplier and high-speed shaft – driving the electrical
generator;
– electromagnetic subsystem, consisting mainly of the electric generator;
– electric subsystem, including the elements for grid connection and local grid.
Wind Energy Conversion Systems
 Wind data and energy estimation
Wind data is crucial for estimating the potential energy production of a wind
turbine or wind farm. Here's how they are connected:
1. Data Collection:
• Wind speed and direction: Measured at various heights using
anemometers installed at potential wind farm sites.
• Data period: Ideally, data should be collected for at least one year to
capture seasonal variations and ensure reliable estimates.
• Additional factors: Atmospheric pressure, temperature, and topography
can also be considered for comprehensive analysis.
2. Data Analysis:
• Statistical methods: The collected wind data is analyzed using statistical
tools like the Weibull distribution to determine the probability of different
wind speeds occurring at the site.
• Wind rose diagrams: These graphical representations visualize the
frequency and direction of wind speeds, providing valuable insights into
prevailing wind patterns.
Wind data and energy estimation
 Wind data and energy estimation

• 3. Energy Estimation Tools:

• Software: Specialized software like WAsP (Wind Atlas Analysis and
Application Program) or Meteodyn WT are used to process wind data
and estimate potential energy production.
• Input parameters: These tools require information like turbine
characteristics, hub height, and site roughness to calculate energy output
based on wind data analysis.
• 4. Factors Affecting Estimation Accuracy:
• Data quality: The accuracy of wind data and its representativeness of
the long-term wind regime are crucial for reliable estimations.
• Site complexity: Complex terrain features can influence wind
patterns, requiring careful consideration during data analysis and
modeling.
• Turbine technology: The efficiency and performance characteristics of
the chosen wind turbine will impact the estimated energy output.
 Wind data and energy estimation

5. Applications of Wind Data and Energy Estimation:

• Feasibility studies: Assessing the economic viability of wind farm
projects by estimating potential energy production and revenue generation.
• Turbine selection: Choosing the most suitable turbine model based on
wind conditions and desired energy output.
• Grid integration: Planning for grid infrastructure upgrades to
accommodate the fluctuating nature of wind power generation.
6. Long term data:
• Long-term historical data and micro-siting studies can further refine wind
energy estimations.
• Environmental impact assessments consider potential effects of wind
turbines on wildlife and local communities.
• Continuous monitoring and data collection throughout the operational life
of a wind farm are crucial for optimizing performance and ensuring
accurate energy production forecasts.
Wind data and energy estimation
 Site Selection for Wind Energy Systems

Selecting the optimal location for a wind energy system is

crucial for its success. Several factors need to be evaluated to
ensure efficient power generation, economic viability, and
minimal environmental impact. Here are some key
considerations:
1. Wind Resource Assessment:
• Wind speed and direction: Consistent and strong winds are
essential for generating sufficient electricity. Anemometers
are used to measure wind data over an extended period
(ideally one year) to assess the wind resource potential.
• Wind rose diagrams: These visualizations depict wind
speed and direction frequencies, providing valuable insights
into prevailing wind patterns at the site.
 Site Selection for Wind Energy Systems

2. Site Characteristics:
• Topography: Ideally, flat or gently rolling terrain with minimal
obstructions like trees or buildings is preferred for optimal wind
flow. Complex terrain can create turbulence and negatively
impact turbine performance.
• Land availability and accessibility: Sufficient land area is
needed for installing turbines, access roads, and electrical
infrastructure. Ease of access for construction, maintenance, and
transportation of equipment is crucial.
• Environmental considerations: Potential impacts on
wildlife, migratory patterns, and sensitive ecosystems need to be
evaluated and mitigated if necessary. Noise pollution and visual
impact on landscapes should also be considered.
 Site Selection for Wind Energy Systems

3. Grid Connection:
• Distance to the grid: Minimizing the distance between the wind
farm and the electricity grid reduces transmission losses and
associated costs.
• Grid capacity: The existing grid infrastructure should have
sufficient capacity to handle the additional power generated by the
wind farm. Upgrades might be necessary in some cases.
4. Regulatory and Permitting Requirements:
• Zoning regulations: Local zoning laws and regulations need to
be compliant with wind farm development.
• Environmental permits: Obtaining necessary permits from
relevant authorities for construction and operation, addressing
potential environmental concerns.
 Site Selection for Wind Energy Systems
5. Additional Factors:
• Social and community acceptance: Engaging with local communities and
addressing their concerns regarding potential impacts is crucial for project
acceptance and success.
• Economic feasibility: Conducting a comprehensive cost-benefit
analysis, considering capital and operational costs, potential energy
production, and revenue generation.
6. Tools and Techniques:
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Used to analyze various site
characteristics, including wind resource maps, topography, and land use.
• Wind resource modeling software: Specialized software helps simulate wind
flow patterns and estimate potential energy production based on site data.
Conclusion:
• A thorough and comprehensive site selection process involving careful evaluation
of wind resource, site characteristics, grid connection, regulatory aspects, and
other factors is essential for establishing successful and sustainable wind energy
systems.
 Wind energy potential in India

India ranks 4th globally in terms of installed wind energy

capacity, highlighting its significant potential and progress in
this renewable energy sector. Here's a breakdown of the current
situation:
Estimated wind power potential:
• 695.5 GW at 120 meters above ground level
• 1,164 GW at 150 meters above ground level
These figures indicate vast untapped potential for further
development.
Favorable wind conditions: Several regions in India,
particularly in southern, western, and northern parts, experience
strong and consistent winds, making them ideal for wind power
generation.
 Wind energy potential in India
Installation:
• Current installed capacity: As of April 2023, India has approximately 42.8 GW of
installed wind energy capacity.
• Rapid growth: The sector has witnessed significant growth in recent years, with an
increase of over 90% in installed capacity from 2014 to 2022.
• Major states: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh are
leading states in terms of wind power installations.
Challenges:
• Intermittency: Wind is a variable resource, and its availability can fluctuate, posing
challenges for grid integration and stability.
• Transmission infrastructure: Upgrading and expanding the existing grid
infrastructure is crucial to efficiently integrate large-scale wind power generation.
• Land acquisition: Obtaining land for wind farm development can be challenging due
to various factors like competing land use and regulatory hurdles.
Overall, India holds immense potential for wind energy development.
Addressing existing challenges and implementing effective policies can significantly
contribute to harnessing this clean and sustainable energy source for the nation's
future.
Wind energy potential
Power vs. Wind Speed Characteristics

25 m/s

5 m/s
12 m/s
Biomass Energy
 Photosynthesis Process
• Photosynthesis is the making (synthesis) of organic structures and
chemical energy stores by the action of solar radiation (photo).
• Solar radiation incident on green plants and other photosynthetic
organisms relates to two main effects: (1) temperature control for
chemical reactions to proceed, especially in leaves, and (2) photo
excitation of electrons for the production of oxygen and carbon
structural material.
• The fixation of one carbon atom from atmospheric CO2 to carbohydrate
proceeds by a series of stages in green plants, including algae:
– Reactions in light, in which photons produce protons from H 2O, with O2 as an
important by-product, and electrons are excited in two stages to produce strong
reducing chemicals.

– Reactions not requiring light (called dark reactions), in which these reducing chemicals
reduce CO2 to carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
 Biomass
• Biomass resources suitable for energy production covers a wide range of
materials, from firewood collected in farmlands and natural woods to
agricultural and forestry crops grown specifically for energy production
purposes. It includes timber processing residues, solid municipal waste
and sewage, aquatic flora, etc. Biomass can be divided into four sub-
categories:
– wood, logging and agricultural residue
– animal dung
– solid industrial waste
– landfill biogas.
 Bioenergy Definitions

• Bagasse: Sugar cane refuse left after pressing the juice from
the cane
• Bioenergy: Energy derived from biomass
• Biomass: Mass of plant material formed from solar energy,
water, and air; any organic material that is renewable
• Coalfire: To burn an additional fuel with the primary fuel,
such as bagasse or sawdust with coal
• IWS: Industrial Waste Stream
– Waste wood, plastics, fiber; same kind of discard
• MWS: Municipal Waste Stream, or MSW, municipal solid
waste
– Trash, plant trimmings, garbage (batteries, heavy metals, poisons,
chemicals?) contaminate the air
 Sources and Availability

• Typical fuels are sugarcane, sugar beets, sorghums, corn,

wheat, forage, grasses, kenaf, eucalyptus, short rotation
hardwoods, sunflowers, and comfrey.
• The materials are so cheap that the cost of hauling them
determines the overall economics of using them.
– Truck haulage should not exceed ~70 miles to avoid overall loss of
energy from truck fuel consumption
• Sustainable sources are important factor.
• Biomass acts as seasonal peaking, since the growth occurs in
time for harvesting for winter heating.
 Dry Biomass

 Dry biomass consists of tree chips, paper, various other

plant matter such as corn, soybean, sorghum, sunflower,
oats, barley, wheat and hay
 When first cut, the sap may absorb energy, and the
mass should dry
 Spread on fields in the sun
 Placed in oven heated by what would otherwise be waste heat
 Using solar thermal energy air-heaters
 Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW)
• Municipal waste streams may have anything in it that people
want to throw away -- it’s a mix.
• Air blast and magnetic separation can select different
streams to go in various piles.
– Permanent magnets first extract the steel and iron
– Alternating current electromagnets use the eddy current effect to
remove nonferrous metals (Al, Cu)
• Light paper and plastic will stratify in an air column to
remove them from heavier substances (metal and bottles).
• Hand sorting can pick out some of what’s left.
• Without this process, pollutants aren’t removed.
 Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW)

Composition of general Urban Garbage

 Industrial Waste Streams (IWS)

• Industrial wastes differ from municipal wastes in that

they are often separated or categorized as outputs
from specific processes.
– It’s relatively easy to have “pure” waste streams all of one
material, like wood strips, pallets, trim scrap.
• Paper products are a possibility, but dioxin content
can cause air pollution.
• Any wet waste stream will require drying before
burning.
– Could require more energy to dry than can be extracted
from it.
 Wet Biomass

 Wet biomass tends to be in water or to stay moist

 Examples are water plants, animal wastes, and biodiesel oil.
 Treated with hydrogasification at high pressure and low
temperatures to produce a gas or biofuel oil.
 Impoundments containing water plants can clean effluent water by
extracting nutrients that should be kept out of lakes and streams
 Harvesting by boats uses wide conveyor belts that lift the weed
onto the boat
 The wet weeds are heavy and hard to pack densely
 This is uneconomic in most areas
 Drying is by dumping in fields for sun drying
 Biomass sources

Agricultural Residues
They are the non-edible stalk type materials that remain
after the harvest of the edible portions of the crops, such
as corn, wheat, grain and sugar cane. Agricultural residues
also includes plant leaves, husks, some roots and stems.
Food Processing Waste
The effluent wastes from a wide variety of industrial
processes ranging from breakfast and cereal bar
manufacturers to fresh and frozen vegetable
manufacturers to alcohol breweries. These residues and
wastes can be in the form of either dry solids or watery
liquids
 Biomass sources

Municipal Solid Waste

The items that are thrown away in the garbage and trash and is collected by
the dustbin men or sent to the recycling centre. Municipal solid waste such as
particularly paper, cardboard, and discarded food products, is an attractive
source of endless biomass feedstock. However, not all municipal waste is
suitable as a biomass resource, especially metallic and plastic waste.
Animal Waste
Waste from farms, ranches, slaughterhouses, fisheries and dairies or any
concentration of animals into giant livestock farming facilities produces large
amounts of manure and sewage sludge. Liquid sewage, animal wastes, and also
human waste from urban areas, provides a constant source of chemical energy
and gases which can be converted into electrical power at wastewater
treatment 2 Biomass provides 32% of all the primary energy use in the country
at present. plants. The treatment of animal waste produces combustible
methane and biogas which can then be used for heating and transportation.
 Biomass sources
Dedicated Biomass Energy Crops
Energy crops are defined as plants and crops grown specifically as an energy
resource. The current production of biomass resources includes primarily
agricultural byproducts, (Herbaceous crops) and forestry byproducts,
(woody biomass crops). But when agricultural crops are grown solely for
their energy production, either as a biomass resource or as a biofuel, than
the plant species that offers the highest efficiency and the least pollution
potentials are usually selected. Energy crops grown specifically as biomass
resources include energy cane, sorghum, sugar cane, eucalyptus trees,
switch grass, miscanthus, giant reeds, and leauceana lucacephala, etc.,
Herbaceous Energy Crops
these have little or no woody tissue such as grasses and legumes grown on
grasslands. Generally, food crops, such as maize, wheat, rice and sugarcane
represent good sources of herbaceous biomass. Some byproducts or
residues of crop cultivation, such as stalks and stems, can also be considered
as herbaceous biomass
 Biomass sources
Woody Energy Crops
These include hardwoods and softwoods form the basis of most biomass
resources. The primary source of woody energy crops comes from fast growing
trees and plantations, but woody biomass can also be a residue from forestry
activities (timber waste), from wood processing (industrial wood, sawdust, wood
shavings), and end-of-life wood products (bulky waste, demolition, pallets).
Woody biomass is cut into uniform, small pieces called wood chips. Highly
efficient and non-polluting burners and stoves can be designed to burn these
chips for cooking and heating.
Lipids
These are water insoluble oils and fats obtained from recently living biomass. For
example, soya bean oil, palm oil, rapeseed oil, waxes and animal fats and
greases, etc. Renewable lipid feedstock also includes algae, bacteria’s and other
such micro-organisms. Algae are among the fastest growing types organisms in
the world, with about half of their weight being oil. The liquid biofuel, usually in
the form of alcohol or ethanol, can be used to produce biodiesel to power cars,
trucks, and even aeroplanes
 Energy from Bio mass
Direct combustion processes.
Thermochemical processes.
Biochemical processes.
 Direct combustion processes.
Direct combustion furnaces can be divided into two broad categories and are
used for producing either direct heat or steam.
Dutch ovens, spreader-stoker and fuel cell furnaces employ two-stages.
The first stage is for drying and possible partial gasification, and the second for
complete combustion.
More advanced versions of these systems use rotating or vibrating grates to
facilitate ash removal, with some requiring water cooling.

The second group, include suspension and fluidised bed furnaces which are
generally used with fine particle biomass feedstocks and liquids.
In suspension furnaces the particles are burnt whilst being kept in suspension
by the injection of turbulent preheated air which may already have the
biomass particles mixed in it.
In fluidised bed combustors, a boiling bed of pre-heated sand (at temperatures
of 500 to 900°C) provides the combustion medium, into which the biomass
fuel is either dropped.
Direct combustion
Direct combustion
 Co-firing

A modern practice which has allowed biomass feedstocks an early

and cheap entry point into the energy market is the practice of co-
firing a fossil-fuel (usually coal) with a biomass feedstock. Co-firing
has a number of advantages, especially where electricity production
is an output.
 Thermochemical processes

Pyrolysis.
Carbonisation.
Gasification.
Catalytic Liquefaction.
 Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is the technique of applying high heat to organic matter (lignocellulosic

materials) in the absence of air or in reduced air. The process can produce
charcoal, condensable organic liquids (pyrolytic fuel oil), non-condensable gasses,
acetic acid, acetone, and methanol. The process can be adjusted to favour
charcoal, pyrolytic oil, gas, or methanol production with a 95.5% fuel-to-feed
efficiency.
 Carbonisation
This is an age old pyrolytic process optimised for the production of charcoal.
Traditional methods of charcoal production have centred on the use of earth
mounds or covered pits into which the wood is piled. Control of the reaction
conditions is often crude and relies heavily on experience. The conversion
efficiency using these traditional techniques is believed to be very low.
 Gasification
Biomass gasification is a thermal process which
converts organic carbonaceous materials (such as
wood waste, shells, pellets, agricultural waste, energy
crops) into a combustible gas comprised of carbon 6
monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H) and carbon dioxide
(CO2). This is achieved by reacting the material at high
temperatures, without fully combusting it, using a
controlled oxygen (O) inlet. The resulting gas mixture
is called syngas. At temperatures of approximately 600
to 1000°C, solid biomass undergoes thermal
decomposition to form gas-phase products which
typically include CO, H, CH4, CO2, and H2O.
Gasification
 Biomass Energy Conversion Process

• Three classifications

– Thermochemical, heat
– Biochemical
– Agrochemical
 Thermochemical, heat Process
• Direct combustion for immediate heat.
• Dry homogeneous biomass is preferred.

• Pyrolysis

• Biomass is heated either in the absence of air or by the partial combustion of

some of the biomass in a restricted air or oxygen supply
• Products are extremely varied, consisting of gases, vapours, liquids and oils, and
solid char and ash. The output depends on temperature, type of input material
and treatment process
• If output of combustible gas is the main product, the process is called gasification.

• A wide range of pre-treatment and process operations are possible. These

normally involve sophisticated chemical control and industrial scale of
manufacture.
• Methanol production is such a process, e.g. for liquid fuel.
• Of particular importance are processes that break down cellulose and starches
into sugars, for subsequent fermentation.
 Biochemical Process
• Aerobic digestion
• In the presence of air, microbial aerobic metabolism of biomass generates heat with
the emission of CO2, but not methane.
• This process is of great significance for the biological carbon cycle, e.g. decay of forest
litter, but is not used significantly for commercial bioenergy. It is used for sewage and
sludge treatment for reducing organic matter.
Composting is an aerobic process in which the final product is compost (fertilizer).
• Anaerobic digestion
• In the absence of free oxygen, certain microorganisms can obtain their own energy
supply by reacting with carbon compounds of medium reduction level to produce both
CO2 and fully reduced carbon as CH4.
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 g 6CO2 + 6H2O (aerobic)
C6H12O6 3CH4 + 3CO2 (anaerobic)
Applications of anerobic digestion are renewable energy, fertilizers and waste
management.
• The process (the oldest biological ‘decay’ mechanism) may also be called
‘fermentation’, but is usually called ‘digestion’ because of the similar process that
occurs in the digestive tracts of ruminant animals. The evolved mix of CO 2, CH4 and
trace gases is called biogas as a general term, but may be named sewage gas or
landfill-gas as appropriate.
 Biochemical Process

• Alcoholic fermentation
• Ethanol is a volatile liquid fuel that may be used in place of refined
petroleum. It is manufactured by the action of micro-organisms and is
therefore a fermentation process. Conventional fermentation has sugars
as feedstock.

• Biophotolysis
• Photolysis is the splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen by the action
of light. Recombination occurs when hydrogen is burnt or exploded as a
fuel in air. Certain biological organisms produce, or can be made to
produce, hydrogen in biophotolysis. Similar results can be obtained
chemically, without living organisms, under laboratory conditions.
Commercial exploitation of these effects has not yet occurred.
 Agrochemical Process
• Fuel extraction.
• Occasionally, liquid or solid fuels may be obtained directly from living or freshly cut
plants. The materials are called exudates and are obtained by cutting into (tapping)
the stems or trunks of the living plants or by crushing freshly harvested material.
• A well known similar process is the production of natural rubber latex. Related
plants to the rubber plant Herea, such as species of Euphorbia, produce
hydrocarbons of less molecular weight than rubber, which may be used as
petroleum substitutes and turpentine.

• Biodiesel and esterification

• Concentrated vegetable oils from plants may be used directly as fuel in diesel
engines; indeed Rudolph Diesel designed his original 1892 engine to run on a
variety of fuels, including natural plant oils.
• However, difficulties arise with direct use of plant oil due to the high viscosity and
combustion deposits as compared with standard diesel-fuel mineral oil, especially
at low ambient temperature ≤∼5C.
• Both difficulties are overcome by converting the vegetable oil to the corresponding
ester, which is arguably a fuel better suited to diesel engines than conventional
(petroleum-based) diesel oil.
 Biomass Production

• Energy farming
• An outstanding and established example of energy farming is the
sugarcane industry
• The process depends upon the combustion of the crushed cane residue
(bagasse) for powering the mill and factory operations. With efficient
achinery there should be excess energy for the production and sale of by-
products, e.g. molasses, chemicals, animal feed, ethanol, fibre board and
electricity
• Commonly the ethanol becomes a component
• of transport fuel and the excess electricity is sold to the local grid
Advantages and dangers of energy farming
 Anaerobic Digestion

• Four main stages or path way of Anaerobic Digestion

– Hydrolysis
– Acidification/acedogenesis
– Acetogenesis and dehydrogenation
– Methanogenesis
 Anaerobic Digestion
• Hydrolysis
– In anaerobic digestion, hydrolysis is the essential first step, as Biomass is
normally comprised of very large organic polymers, which are otherwise
unusable. Through hydrolysis, these large polymers, namely proteins, fats
and carbohydrates, are broken down into smaller molecules such as amino
acids, fatty acids, and simple sugars.
(C6H10O5)n + nH2O = n(C6H12O6)
 Anaerobic Digestion
• Acidogenesis
– Acidogenesis is the next step of anaerobic digestion in which
acidogenic microorganisms further break down the Biomass products
after hydrolysis. These fermentative bacteria produce an acidic
environment in the digestive tank while creating ammonia, H2, CO2,
H2S, shorter volatile fatty acids, carbonic acids, alcohols, as well as
trace amounts of other byproducts. While acidogenic bacteria further
breaks down the organic matter, it is still too large and unusable for
the ultimate goal of methane production.
– C6H12O6 + 2H2O = 2CH3COOH+ 4H2 +2CO2, BACTERIODS, CLOSTRIDIUM
– C6H12O6 + 2H2 = 2CH3CH2COOH+ 42H2O, BUTYRIVIBRIE, EUBACTERIUM
– C6H12O6 = CH3(CH2)COOH+ 2CO2 + 2H2 BIFIDOBACTERIUM, LACTOBACILLUS
– C6H12O6 = 2CH3CHOHCOOH
– C6H12O6 = 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2
 Anaerobic Digestion
• Acetogenesis
– In general, acetogenesis is the creation of acetate, a derivative of
acetic acid, from carbon and energy sources by acetogens. These
microorganisms catabolize many of the products created in
acidogenesis into acetic acid, CO2 and H2. Acetogens break down the
Biomass to a point to which Methanogens can utilize much of the
remaining material to create Methane as a Biofuel.

• Methanogenesis
– Methanogenesis constitutes the final stage of anaerobic digestion in
which methanogens create methane from the final products of
acetogenesis as well as from some of the intermediate products from
hydrolysis and acidogenesis
 Production of Ethanol
• Ethanol, C2H5OH, is produced naturally by certain micro-
organisms from sugars under acidic conditions, i.e. pH 4 to 5.
 Uses of Ethanol

Some uses of ethanol are as follows:-

1. Ethanol is used as an anti-freeze in automobile radiators.
2. Ethanol is used as a preservative for biological specimen.
3. Ethanol is used as an antiseptic to sterilize wounds, in
hospitals.
4. Ethanol is used as a solvent for drugs, oils, fats, perfumes,
dyes, etc.
5. Ethanol is used in the preparation of methylated spirit ( a
mixture of 95% of ethanol and 5% of methanol), rectified spirit
( a mixture of 95.5% of ethanol and 4.5% of water)
6.Power alcohol ( a `mixture of petrol and ethanol) and
denatured spirit (ethanol mixed with pyridine).
7. Ethanol is used in cough and digestive syrups.
 Production of Ethanol
• Directly from sugarcane
• Usually commercial sucrose is removed from the cane juices, and the
remaining molasses used for the alcohol production process (These
molasses themselves have about 55% sugar content. But if the molasses
have little commercial value, then ethanol production from molasses has
favourable commercial possibilities, especially if the cane residue
(bagasse) is available to provide process heat. In this case the major
reaction is the conversion of sucrose to ethanol:

• In practice the yield is limited by other reactions and the increase in mass
of yeast. Commercial yields are about 80% of those predicted . The
fermentation reactions for other sugars, e.g. glucose, C6H12O6, are very
similar.
 Production of Ethanol
• Directly from sugarcane
• The feedstock used in this process is corn stover. The main compounds are
(on dry basis, wt.) cellulose (37.4%), hemicellulose (21.1%) and lignin
(18.0%). The modeling starts just after the washing of the feedstock which
step induces an increase of the feedstock moisture. Three reaction steps
follow:
– Hydrolysis : the feedstock is heated (190°C) at high pressure (12.1 atm) with
an acid catalyst (H2SO4). Most of the hemicellulose is converted to xylose.
– Saccharification : this is an enzymatic reaction that converts the cellulose into
glucose.
– Fermentation : most of the glucose and xylose are converted to ethanol and
carbon dioxide.
 Production of Ethanol
• From sugar beet
• Sugar beet is a mid-latitude root crop for obtaining major supplies of sugar. The sugar
can be fermented, but obtaining process heat from the crop residues is, in practice,
not as straightforward as with cane sugar, so ethanol production is more expensive.

• From starch crops

• Starch crops, e.g. grain and cassava, can be hydrolyzed to sugars. Starch is the main
energy storage carbohydrate of plants, and is composed of two large molecular
weight components, amylose and amylopectin. These relatively large molecules are
essentially linear, but have branched chains of glucose molecules linked by distinctive
carbon bonds. These links can be broken by enzymes from malts associated with
specific crops, e.g. barley or corn, or by enzymes from certain moulds (fungi). Such
methods are common in whisky distilleries, corn syrup manufacture and ethanol
production from cassava roots. The links can also be broken by acid treatment at pH
1.5 and at 2 atmospheres pressure, but yields are small and the process more
expensive than enzyme alternatives. An important by-product of the enzyme process
is the residue used for cattle feed or soil conditioning.
 Production of Ethanol
• From cellulose

• Cellulose comprises about 40% of all biomass dry matter. Apart from its
combustion as part of wood, cellulose is potentially a primary material for
ethanol production on a large scale. It has a polymer structure of linked
glucose molecules, and forms the main mechanical-structure component of
the woody parts of plants. These links are considerably more resistant to
breakdown into sugars under hydrolysis than the equivalent links in starch.
• Cellulose is found in close association with lignin in plants, which discourages
hydrolysis to sugars. Acid hydrolysis is possible as with starch, but the process
is expensive and energy intensive. Hydrolysis is less expensive, and less energy
input is needed if enzymes of natural, wood-rotting fungi are used, but the
process is slow. Prototype commercial processes have used pulped wood or,
more preferably, old newspaper as input. The initial physical breakdown of
woody material is a difficult and expensive stage, usually requiring much
electricity for the rolling and hammering machines. Although not yet generally
applied commercially, these processes may allow ethanol from biomass to
compete commercially with fossil petroleum.
 Ethanol Fuel Use

• Liquid fuels are of great importance because of their ease of handling and
controllable combustion in engines.
• Anhydrous ethanol is a liquid between −117°C and+78°C, with a flash
point of 130°C and an ignition temperature of 423°C, and so has the
characteristics of a commercial liquid fuel, being used as a direct
substitute or additive for petrol (gasoline), and is used in three ways.
– 1. As 95% (hydrous) ethanol, used directly in modified and dedicated spark-ignition
engines;
– 2. Mixed with the fossil petroleum in dry conditions to produce gasohol, as used in
unmodified spark-ignition engines, perhaps retuned;
– 3. as an emulsion with diesel fuel for diesel compression engines (this may be called
diesohol, but is not common).

• In general such bioethanol fuel has the proportion of ethanol indicated as

EX, where X is the percentage of ethanol, e.g. E10 has 10% ethanol and
90% fossil petroleum. Gasohol for unmodified engines is usually between
E10 and E15, and larger proportions of ethanol require engine
modification to some extent.
 Biomethane
• Methane produced from biomass is referred to as Bio-Methane,
Green Gas, Bio-Substitute Natural Gas (Bio-SNG) or Bio-CNG when
it is used as a transport fuel.
• Biomass energy is expected to make a major contribution to the
replacement of fossil fuels. The future world-wide available amount
of biomass for energy is estimated to be 200 to 500 EJ per year
 Biogas Production

• A number of concepts are available such as, the production of

biomethane from the bio-chemical conversion of biomass
(biogas) and via thermo-chemical conversion of solid biomass,
so called Bio-SNG.
• Anaerobic digestion processes are state of the art and well
developed. Using the long time experiences of upgrading
biogas the challenges of future biomethane supply plants will
be optimisation of substrate supply, digestate utilisation as
well as efficient gas grid access using optimised and new
technologies.
Value chain of biomethane production
and use
 Biogas Pathway

• The bio-chemical conversion pathway of biomass to

biomethane can be subdivided into two main process
steps: (i) the biogas production based on anaerobic
digestion or rather wet fermentation of biomass
residues (and organic wastes) as well as energy
crops(e.g. maize silage) and (ii) the upgrading of biogas
or rather raw biogas to biomethane.
• It has become a market mature technology for the
provision of electrical and/or thermal energy in
conversion units with capacities ranging from a few
kWCH4 up to 10 MWCH4.
 Biogas Pathway
• The processes are favoured by wet, warm and dark conditions. The final stages are accomplished
by many different species of bacteria classified as either aerobic or anaerobic.
• Aerobic bacteria are favoured in the presence of oxygen with the biomass carbon being fully
oxidised to CO2. This composting process releases some heat slowly and locally, but is not a useful
process for energy supply. To be aerobic, air has to permeate, so a loose ‘heap’ of biomass is
essential. Domestic composting is greatly helped by having layers of rumpled newspaper and
cardboard, which allows air pockets and introduces beneficial carbon from the carbohydrate
material. Such aerobic digestion has minimal emission of methane, CH 4.
• In closed conditions, with no oxygen available from the environment, anaerobic bacteria exist by
breaking down carbohydrate material. The carbon may be ultimately divided between fully
oxidised CO2 and fully reduced CH4.
• Nutrients such as soluble nitrogen compounds remain available in solution, so providing excellent
fertilizer and humus. Being accomplished by micro-organisms, the reactions are all classed as
fermentations, but in anaerobic conditions the term ‘digestion’ is preferred .
• The decomposed waste should then be released for natural ecological processes to continue.
• Biogas is the CH4/CO2 gaseous mix evolved from digesters, including waste and sewage pits; to
utilise this gas, the digesters are constructed and controlled to favour methane production and
extraction .
• The energy available from the combustion of biogas is between 60 and 90% of the dry matter
heat of combustion of the input material. However, the gas is obtainable from slurries of up to
95% water, so in practice the biogas energy is often available where none would otherwise have
been obtained. Another, perhaps dominant, benefit is that the digested effluent forms
significantly less of a health hazard than the input material.
 Basic Processes and Energetic
• The general equation for anaerobic digestion is

• For cellulose this becomes

• The reactions are slightly exothermic, with typical heat of reaction being
about 15MJkg−1 dry digestible material, equal to about 250kJ per mole of
C6H10O5.
• If the input material had been dried and burnt, the heat of combustion
• would have been about 16MJkg−1. Only about 10% of the potential heat
• of combustion need be lost in the digestion process. This is 90%
conversion efficiency.
 Basic Processes and Energetic
• It is generally considered that three ranges of temperature favour
particular types of bacteria. Digestion at higher temperature
proceeds more rapidly than at lower temperature, with gas yield
rates doubling at about every 5C of increase. The temperature
ranges are (1) psicrophilic, about 20°C, (2) mesophilic, about 35°C,
and (3) thermophilic, about 55°C. The biochemical processes occur
in three stages, each facilitated by distinct sets of anaerobic
bacteria
– 1. Insoluble biodegradable materials, e.g. cellulose, polysaccharides and
fats, are broken down to soluble carbohydrates and fatty acids
(hydrogenesis). This occurs in about a day at 25°C in an active digester
– 2. Acid forming bacteria produce mainly acetic and propionic acid
(acidogenesis). This stage likewise takes about one day at 25°C.
– 3. Methane forming bacteria slowly, in about 14 days at 25°C, complete
the digestion to a maximum ∼70%CH4 and minimum ∼30%CO 2 with
trace amounts of H2 and perhaps H2S (methanogenesis). H2 may play an
essential role, and indeed some bacteria, e.g. Clostridium, are distinctive
in producing H2 as the final product.
 Biomethane through gasification

• Gasfication temperatures between 500-1400°C Different gasfication

medium; air, oxygen, steam or combinations. Depending on the final
product wanted Low temperature gasification.
• Gasification with low temperature (700-850 °C) results in a product gas
with relatively high methane content, and therefore less energy losses
within the methanation step.
 Biogas combustion characteristics

Biogas, a renewable energy source produced from organic matter such as animal
waste, agricultural residues, or sewage, has unique combustion characteristics.
Here are some key points:
1. *Composition*: Biogas primarily consists of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide
(CO2), with small amounts of other gases such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
nitrogen (N2), and trace amounts of water vapor.
2. *Energy Content*: Methane, the primary component of biogas, is a potent
greenhouse gas but also a valuable energy source. It has a higher energy
content per unit volume compared to other gases, making biogas a useful fuel
for heating and power generation.
3. *Flammability*: Methane is highly flammable. Biogas can ignite easily in the
presence of oxygen and a spark or flame. Its flammability range (the range of
concentrations in air where it can ignite) is typically between 5% and 15%
methane by volume.
4. *Combustion Efficiency*: When biogas is burned in a controlled manner, it can
achieve high combustion efficiency, releasing heat energy that can be
harnessed for various applications, including heating, cooking, and electricity
generation.
 Biogas combustion characteristics

5. *Emissions*: Complete combustion of methane produces carbon dioxide and

water vapor as primary byproducts, along with heat. Incomplete combustion or
inefficient burning can result in the release of pollutants such as carbon monoxide
(CO) and unburned hydrocarbons, which are harmful to health and the environment.
6. *Sulfur Content*: Biogas produced from anaerobic digestion of organic materials
may contain hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which can corrode equipment and emit a foul
odor. Removal of sulfur compounds is often necessary to improve the quality of
biogas and reduce environmental impacts.
7. *Applications*: Biogas can be used directly for heating, cooking, or as a fuel for
vehicles after purification. It can also be converted into electricity and heat through
combined heat and power (CHP) systems or used as a renewable natural gas (RNG)
for injection into existing natural gas pipelines.

Understanding the combustion characteristics of biogas is essential for its

safe and efficient utilization as a renewable energy resource. Proper handling,
storage, and combustion equipment are necessary to maximize its benefits while
minimizing environmental impacts.
 Biodiesel

• Concentrated vegetable oils may be used directly as fuel in diesel engines,

but difficulties arise from the high viscosity and from the combustion
deposits, as compared with conventional (fossil) petroleum-based diesel
oil, especially at low ambient temperature (≤5C).
• Both difficulties are overcome by reacting the extracted vegetable oil with
ethanol or methanol to form the equivalent ester.
• Such esters, called biodiesel, have technical characteristics as fuels that are
better suited to diesel-engines than petroleum based diesel oil. The
reaction yields the equivalent ester and glycerine (also called ‘glycerol’).
• The process usually uses KOH as a catalyst. Glycerol is also a useful and
saleable product.
• The process used to convert these oils to Biodiesel is called
transesterification.
 Biodiesel Production

• Base catalyzed transesterification of the oil.

• Direct acid catalyzed transesterification of the oil.
• Conversion of the oil to its fatty acids and then to biodiesel
– Almost all biodiesel is produced using base catalyzed transesterification as it is the most
economical process requiring only low temperatures and pressures and producing a 98%
conversion yield.
– The esterification process uses methanol and a catalyst, either caustic soda (NaOH) or
potassium hydroxide (KOH), to produce sodium or potassium methoxide which reacts
with the vegetable oil or fat. Methyl or ethyl esters, which take the name of the
feedstock; Rape methyl Ester, Soybean Methyl; Ester etc. and glycerine are produced

Vegetable oils and animal fats contain mostly triglycerides

 Biodiesel Production
• Mixing of alcohol and catalyst
– The catalyst is typically sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) or potassium hydroxide
(potash). It is dissolved in the alcohol using a standard agitator or mixer. Reaction. The
alcohol/catalyst mix is then charged into a closed reaction vessel and the oil or fat is
added. The system from here on is totally closed to the atmosphere to prevent the loss
of alcohol. The reaction mix is kept just above the boiling point of the alcohol (around
160 °F) to speed up the reaction and the reaction takes place. Recommended reaction
time varies from 1 to 8 hours, and some systems recommend the reaction take place at
room temperature. Excess alcohol is normally used to ensure total conversion of the fat
or oil to its esters. Care must be taken to monitor the amount of water and free fatty
acids in the incoming oil or fat. If the free fatty acid level or water level is too high it may
cause problems with soap formation and the separation of the glycerin by-product
downstream.
• Separation
– Once the reaction is complete, two major products exist: glycerin and biodiesel. Each
has a substantial amount of the excess methanol that was used in the reaction. The
reacted mixture is sometimes neutralized at this step if needed. The glycerin phase is
much more dense than biodiesel phase and the two can be gravity separated with
glycerin simply drawn off the bottom of the settling vessel. In some cases, a centrifuge is
used to separate the two materials faster.
 Biodiesel Production
• Alcohol Removal
– Once the glycerin and biodiesel phases have been separated, the excess alcohol in each
phase is removed with a flash evaporation process or by distillation. In others systems,
the alcohol is removed and the mixture neutralized before the glycerin and esters have
been separated. In either case, the alcohol is recovered using distillation equipment and
is re-used. Care must be taken to ensure no water accumulates in the recovered alcohol
stream.
• Glycerin Neutralization
– The glycerin by-product contains unused catalyst and soaps that are neutralized with an
acid and sent to storage as crude glycerin. In some cases the salt formed during this
phase is recovered for use as fertilizer. In most cases the salt is left in the glycerin. Water
and alcohol are removed to produce 80-88% pure glycerin that is ready to be sold as
crude glycerin. In more sophisticated operations, the glycerin is distilled to 99% or higher
purity and sold into the cosmetic and pharmaceutical markets.
• Methyl Ester Wash
– Once separated from the glycerin, the biodiesel is sometimes purified by washing gently
with warm water to remove residual catalyst or soaps, dried, and sent to storage. In
some processes this step is unnecessary. This is normally the end of the production
process resulting in a clear amber-yellow liquid with a viscosity similar to petrodiesel. In
some systems the biodiesel is distilled in an additional step to remove small amounts of
color bodies to produce a colorless biodiesel.
Geothermal Energy
 What is Geothermal Energy?
• Geothermal energy is generated in the earth's core Temperatures hotter
than the sun's surface are continuously produced inside the earth by the
slow decay of radioactive particles The earth's crust is broken into pieces
called plates. Magma comes close to the earth's surface near the edges of
these plates. This is where volcanoes occur. The lava that erupts from
volcanoes is partly magma. Deep underground, the rocks and water
absorb the heat from this magma. The temperature of the rocks and water
get hotter and hotter as you go deeper underground.

• Direct use:
– District Heating System
– Electricity generation
– Heat pumps
 Types of Geothermal Resources

• Geothermal Sources are Classified Based on :

– (1) Temperature,
• Low Temperature Reservoir: 50-200 °F (10-94 °C)
• High Temperature Reservoir: >200 °F

– (2) Hydrothermal and

• Dry steam system
• Wet steam system

– (3) Type of Energy Usage

• Geopressured
• Hot dry rock (HDR)
• Magma
 Low Temperature Reservoirs

– Available almost anywhere on earth

– Predominantly Used for Heat Pumps
• Space Heating

– Other Common Uses:

• Hot Water Production
• Piped Under Roads / Sidewalks (Klamath Falls,
Oregon)
• In Greenhouses to Grow Flowers, etc.
• Industrial Uses: dry wood, pasteurize milk, grow
fish, etc.
 High Temperature Reservoirs

– Availability:
• Can Occur Within a Couple of Miles of Earth’s
Surface Where Earth’s Crust Is Very Thin – i.e.,
Closer to Molten Magma at Core

– Suitable for Commercial Production of Electricity

• Power Plants Need High Capacity Geothermal
Reservoir – Water / Steam >220°F (105°C)

– Greatest Potential for Energy Output

 Dry Steam System
• Dry steam geothermal resources were the first used since the
beginning of the 20th century to generate electricity . In this
process, the steam source available in the underground flows
naturally to run a thermal turbine driving an electric
generator.
• A dry steam plant has production wells that are drilled down
to the geothermal reservoir. The superheated pressurized
steam (180°C < T < 280°C) is brought to the surface at high
speeds and passed through a steam turbine to generate
electricity. The steam passes through a condenser and is
converted into water. The condensate is then re-injected into
the ground through wells. Sulzer supports these processes
with Condensate Re-Injection pumps (CRIP), Cooling Water
pumps (CWP) and auxiliary pumps.
 Wet steam or Flash Steam System

• Flash Steam Power Plants, which are the most common, use
water with temperatures greater than 182°C.
• A single flash condensing cycle is the most common energy
conversion system for utilizing geothermal fluid due to its
simple construction and to the resultant low possibility of
silica precipitation.
• A double flash cycle can produce 15-25% more power output
than a single flash condensing cycle for the same geothermal
fluid conditions.
• Flash power plants typically require resource temperatures in
the range of 177oC to 260oC.
 Single Flash System
• In a single flash steam plant, the two-phase flow from the well is
directed to a steam separator; where, the steam is separated from the
water phase and directed to the inlet of the turbine. The water phase is
either used for heat input to a binary system in a direct-use application,
or injected directly back into the reservoir.
• Steam exiting the turbine is directed to a condenser operating at vacuum
pressure.
 Single Flash Back Pressure System
• The term “back pressure” is
used because the exhaust
pressure of the turbine is
much higher than the
condensing system. The
system does not use a
condenser.
• The steam consumption per
power output is almost double
that from the condensing type
at the same inlet pressure.
• The back pressure units are
very cheap and simple to
install, but inefficient (typically
10-20 tone per hour of steam
for every MW of electricity)
and can have higher
environmental impacts.
Double Flash System
 Double Flash System
• The double flash system uses a two stage separation of
geothermal fluid instead of one, resulting in two steam
admission pressures at the turbine.
• Steam from the high pressure turbine is mixed with the steam
from the low pressure separator and then directed to the low
pressure turbine to generate extra power.
• The brine from a low pressure separator is piped to the
reinjection wells.
• From geothermal wells in the island, with a depth between
600 to 2500 m, geothermal fluid with temperature 230 to
250oC is provided and steam in the mixture of 20 to 80%.
 Binary Cycle System
• Binary Cycle Power Plants operate with the lower-temperature waters, 74° to
177°C.
• These plants use the heat of the hot water to boil a “working fluid,” usually an
organic compound with a low boiling point.
• This working fluid is then vaporized in a heat exchanger and used to turn a
turbine.
• The geothermal water and the working fluid are confined to separate closed
loops, so there are no emissions in the air.
• Because these lower-temperature waters are much more plentiful than high
temperature waters, binary cycle systems will be the dominant geothermal
power plants of the future.
• In the binary process the geotharmal water heats another liquid (“working
fluid”), such as isobutene (e.g., isopentane, propane, freon or ammonia), that
boils at a lower temperature than water.
• The two liquids are kept completely separate through the use of a heat
exchanger used to transfer the heat energy from the geotharmal water to the
“working fluid" in a conventional Rankine Cycle.
Binary Cycle System
 Geopressured Resources

• Greater than hydrostatic

– Freshwater/Brackish – 0.433
psi/ft
– Salt Water – 0.465 psi/ft
• Soft Geopressure
– Hydrostatic to 0.7 psi/ft
• Hard Geopressure
– 0.7 – 1.0 psi/ft (lithostatic
pressure gradient)
• Geothermal
– Temperature > 212°F (100°C)
 Hot Dry Rocks (HDR)
• The simplest models have one
injection well and two production
wells. Pressurized cold water is sent
down the injection well where the hot
rocks heat the water up. Then
pressurized water of temperatures
greater than 2000F is brought to the
surface and passed near a liquid with
a lower boiling temperature, such as
an organic liquid like butane. The
ensuing steam turns the turbines.
Then, the cool water is again injected
to be heated. This system does not
produce any emissions. Industries are
making plans to commercialize this
new technology.
 Use Of Geothermal Power Is Growing
• Currently, geothermal energy provides less than 0.5% of
the total energy used worldwide
- It provides more power than solar and wind combined
- But much less than hydropower and biomass
• Commercially viable only in British Columbia
• In the right setting, geothermal power can be among the
cheapest electricity to generate

17-217
 Geothermal’s Harmful Effects
 Brine can salinate soil if the water is not injected back into the
reserve after the heat is extracted.

• Extracting large amounts of water can cause land subsidence,

and this can lead to an increase in seismic activity. To
prevented this the cooled water must be injected back into the
reserve in order to keep the water pressure constant
underground.

• Power plants that do not inject the cooled water back into the
ground can release H2S, the “rotten eggs” gas. This gas can
cause problems if large quantities escape because inhaling too
much is fatal.
Ocean Energy
 Overview of Ocean Energy

• Ocean energy is replenished by the sun and through

tidal influences of the moon and sun gravitational forces
• Near-surface winds induce wave action and cause wind-
blown currents at about 3% of the wind speed
• Tides cause strong currents into and out of coastal
basins and rivers
• Ocean surface heating by some 70% of the incoming
sunlight adds to the surface water thermal energy,
causing expansion and flow
• Wind energy is stronger over the ocean due to less
drag, although technically, only sea breezes are from
ocean energy
 Ocean Energy Resources
Ocean Tides: Potential energy associated with tides can be harnessed by
building barrage or other forms of construction across an estuary.

Ocean Waves: Kinetic & potential energy associated with ocean waves can
be harnessed using modular types of technologies.

Marine Current: Kinetic energy associated with tidal/marine currents can be

harnessed using modular systems.

Temperature Gradient: Thermal energy due to temperature gradient

between sea surface & deep-water can be harnessed using different ocean
thermal energy conversion (OTEC) processes.

Salinity Gradient: At the mouth of rivers where fresh water mixes with
saltwater, energy associated with the salinity gradient can be harnessed using a
pressure retarded reverse osmosis process and associated conversion
technologies.
 Tidal Power
• Tidal power generators derive their energy from movement
of the tides.
• Obviously requires large bodies of water nearby. Not viable
on the prairies for example.
• Has potential for generation of very large amounts of
electricity, or can be used in smaller scale.
• Tidal power is not a new concept and has been used since at
least the 11th Century in Britain and France for the milling of
grains.
• There are a number of places around the world that have
adopted pilot projects for different types of tidal generators
 TIDES
• Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects
of the Moon and Sun's gravitational forces, as well as the Earth's
rotation.
• Tides adjust the depth of the sea and create oscillating currents called
tidal streams.
Duration and Frequencies of Daily Tides
• Most coastal areas experience two high and two low tides per day. One of these
high tides is at the point on the earth which is closest to the moon (sub lunar) and
other high tide is at the opposite point on the earth (antipodal).
• One tidal cycle comprises two high tides and two low tides. One tidal cycle
completes in 24 hours and 50.4 minutes. This is because of the revolution of Moon
around the earth and both earth’s rotation and moon revolution are in same
direction. The time difference between two high tides is called “Tidal Interval”.
The tidal cycle in this pattern is called semidiurnal.
The typical tidal range in the open ocean is about 1 metre (3 feet).
Closer to the coast, this range is much greater.
Coastal tidal ranges vary globally and can differ anywhere from near
zero to over 11 m (36 ft).
The exact range depends on the volume of water adjacent to the coast,
and the geography of the basin the water sits in. Larger bodies of water
have higher ranges,
The world's largest tidal range of 11.7 metres (38.4 feet) occurs in
Bay of Fundy, Canada,
Origin of Tides
• Tidal power utilizes the twice-daily variation in
sea level caused primarily by the gravitational
effect of the Moon and, to a lesser extent the
Sun on the world's oceans. The Earth's rotation
is also a factor in the production of tides.
• The interaction of the Moon and the Earth
results in the oceans bulging out towards the
Moon (Lunar Tide). The sun’s gravitational field
pulls as well (Solar Tide)
• As the Sun and Moon are not in fixed positions
in the celestial sphere, but change position
with respect to each other, their influence on
the tidal range (difference between low and
high tide) is also effected.
• If the Moon and the Sun are in the same plane
as the Earth, the tidal range is the
superposition of the range due to the lunar
and solar tides. This results in the maximum
tidal range (spring tides). If they are at right
angles to each other, lower tidal differences
are experienced resulting in neap tides.
Highest tides happen at Gulf of Fundy about 50 metres
 Moon rotates about its own axis. The time taken by Moon to
rotate about its own axis is the same as the time taken by the
Moon to revolve around the Earth. So the same side of the Moon
always faces the Earth. Moon takes 1 month (27.3days) to
complete a revolution around the Earth. It takes 29.5 days in
between new moon to new moon because of the Earth’s orbiting
 How do tides changing = Electricity?
• As usual, the electricity is provided by spinning turbines.

• Two types of tidal energy can be extracted: kinetic energy of

currents between ebbing and surging tides and potential energy
from the difference in height (or head) between high and low
tides.

• The potential energy contained in a volume of water is

E = xMg
where x is the height of the tide, M is the mass of water and g is
the acceleration due to gravity.

• Therefore, a tidal energy generator must be placed in a location

with very high-amplitude tides.
• The generation of electricity from tides is very similar to
hydroelectric generation, except that water is able to flow in
both directions and this must be taken into account in the
development of the generators.

• The simplest generating system for tidal plants, known as an

ebb generating system, involves a dam, known as a barrage
across an estuary.

• Sluice gates on the barrage allow the tidal basin to fill on the
incoming high tides and to exit through the turbine system on
the outgoing tide (known as the ebb tide).

• Alternatively, flood-generating systems, which generate

power from the incoming tide are possible, but are less
favored than ebb generating systems.
 Ebb Generation
• The basin is filled through the sluices
and freewheeling turbines until high
tide. Then the sluice gates and turbine
gates are closed.

• They are kept closed until the sea level

falls to create sufficient head across Estuary
the barrage and the turbines generate
until the head is again low. Then the
sluices are opened, turbines
disconnected and the basin is filled
again.

• The cycle repeats itself.

• Ebb generation (also known as outflow

generation) takes its name because
generation occurs as the tide ebbs.

Ebb generating system with a bulb turbine

 Some Turbine Types

Bulb Type Rim Type

•In systems with a bulb turbine, water flows around
the turbine, making access for maintenance difficult,
as the water must be prevented from flowing past the
turbine.
•Rim turbines reduce these problems as the generator
is mounted in the barrage, at right angles to the
turbine blades. Unfortunately, it is difficult to regulate
the performance of these turbines and it is unsuitable
Tubular Type for use in pumping.
•Tubular turbines have been proposed for use some UK
projects. In this configuration, the blades are
connected to a long shaft and orientated at an angle so
that the generator is sitting on top of the barrage.
 Tidal Energy : Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of Tidal Energy
– 1) It is an inexhaustible source of energy.
– 2) Tidal energy is environment friendly energy and doesn't produce greenhouse gases.
– 3) As 71% of Earth’s surface is covered by water, there is scope to generate this energy
on large scale.
– 4) We can predict the rise and fall of tides as they follow cyclic fashion.
– 5) Efficiency of tidal power is far greater as compared to coal, solar or wind energy. Its
efficiency is around 80%.
– 6) Although cost of construction of tidal power is high but maintenance costs are
relatively low.
– 7) Tidal Energy doesn’t require any kind of fuel to run.
– 8) The life of tidal energy power plant is very long.
– 9) The energy density of tidal energy is relatively higher than other renewable energy
sources.
 .

• Disadvantages of Tidal Energy

– 1) Cost of construction of tidal power plant is high.
– 2) There are very few ideal locations for construction of plant and they too are localized
to coastal regions only.
– 3) Intensity of sea waves is unpredictable and there can be damage to power generation
units.
– 4) Influences aquatic life adversely and can disrupt migration of fish.
– 5) The actual generation is for a short period of time. The tides only happen twice a day
so electricity can be produced only for that time.
– 6) Frozen sea, low or weak tides, straight shorelines, low tidal rise or fall are some of the
obstructions.
– 7) This technology is still not cost effective and more technological advancements are
required to make it commercially viable.
– 8) Usually the places where tidal energy is produced are far away from the places where
it is consumed. This transmission is expensive and difficult.
 Wave Energy
Where does wave energy originate?
– Differential warming of the earth causes pressure
differences in the atmosphere, which generate
winds
– As winds move across the surface of open bodies
of water, they transfer some of their energy to the
water and create waves
 Wave Energy
The amount of energy transferred and the size of the
resulting wave depend on
– the wind speed
– the length of time for which the wind blows
– the distance over which the wind blows, or fetch

Therefore, coasts that have exposure to the prevailing

wind direction and that face long expanses of open
ocean have the greatest wave energy levels.
 Wave Energy
The strongest
winds blow
between 30˚ and
60˚ in latitude.

Western
coastlines at
these latitudes
experience the
most powerful
waves.

Global Wave Energy Resource Distribution

(measuring the amount of power in kW contained in each linear
meter of wave front)
 How do we harness
wave energy?
In order to extract this energy, wave energy conversion
devices must create a system of reacting forces, in
which two or more bodies move relative to each
other, while at least one body interacts with the
waves.

There are many ways that such a system could be

configured.
 Wave Energy Technologies
• Waves retain energy differently depending on water
depth
– Lose energy slowly in deep water
– Lose energy quickly as water becomes shallower
because of friction between the moving water
particles and the sea bed
• Wave energy conversion devices are designed for
optimal operation at a particular depth range
 Wave Energy Technologies
Therefore, devices can be characterized in terms of
their placement or location.
– At the shoreline
– Near the shoreline
– Off-shore

One wave energy conversion system that has proven

successful at each of these locations is the
OSCILLATING WATER COLUMN.
 Wave energy converters
• Point absorbers
• Terminators
• Attenuators
• Oscillating wave surge
• Oscillating water column
• Submerged pressure differential
• Rotating mass
Point absorbers
Terminators
Attenuators
Oscillating wave surge
Submerged pressure differential
Rotating mass
Oscillating water column
 Oscillating Water Column
An Oscillating Water Column (OWC) consists of a
partially submerged structure that opens to the
ocean below the water surface. This structure is
called a wave collector.

This design creates a water column in the central

chamber of the collector, with a volume of air
trapped above it.
Oscillating Water Column
• As a wave enters the
collector, the surface of the
water column rises and
compresses the volume of
air above it.
• The compressed air is
forced into an aperture at
the top of the chamber,
moving past a turbine.
• As the wave retreats, the air
is drawn back through the
turbine due to the reduced
pressure in the chamber.
 Oscillating Water Column
The type of turbine used is a key element to the
conversion efficiency of an OWC.

Traditional turbines function by gas or liquid flowing in

one direction and at a constant velocity. When the
flow is not always in the same direction or at a
constant velocity – such as in the OWC – traditional
turbines become ineffective.
 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
• Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) generates electricity indirectly from
solar energy by harnessing the temperature difference between the sun-
warmed surface of tropical oceans and the colder deep waters. A significant
fraction of solar radiation incident on the ocean is retained by seawater in
tropical regions, resulting in average year-round surface temperatures of
about 28°C. Deep, cold water, meanwhile, forms at higher latitudes and
descends to flow along the seafloor toward the equator. The warm surface
layer, which extends to depths of about 100-200m, is separated from the
deep cold water by a thermocline. The temperature difference, ΔT, between
the surface and thousand-meter depth ranges from 10 to 25°C, with larger
differences occurring in equatorial and tropical waters.
 Open Cycle OTEC
• The steps of the Claude, or open, cycle are:
– (1) flash evaporation of warm sea water in a partial vacuum;
– (2) expansion of the steam through a turbine to generate power;
– (3) condensation of the vapor by direct contact heat transfer to cold sea water; and
– (4) compression and discharge of the condensate and any residual noncondensable gases.
• The entire system, from evaporator to condenser, operates at partial vacuum,
typically at pressures of 1-3% of atmospheric.
• The low system pressures of open cycle OTEC are necessary to induce boiling of
the warm sea water.
 Closed Cycle OTEC
• The specific process adopted for closed cycle OTEC is the Rankine, or
vapor power, cycle.
• The principal components are the heat exchangers, turbo-generator, and
seawater supply system, which, although not shown, accounts for most of
the parasitic power consumption and a significant fraction of the capital
expense.
• In this system, heat transfer from warm surface sea water occurs in the
evaporator, producing a saturated vapor from the working fluid. Electricity
is generated when this gas expands to lower pressure through the turbine.
Latent heat is transferred from the vapor to the cold sea water in the
condenser and the resulting liquid is pressurized with a pump to repeat
the cycle.
Closed Cycle OTEC
 Environmental Aspects of OTEC

Negatives:
• Fish eggs and larvae entrained, destroyed
• Sterilization of land by land based plants
• Floating plants – navigational hazard
• Entrainment and impingement of organisms.
• Chlorine used for preventing biofouling – hazardous
• Metal pieces entrained – affects marine orgs.
• Mixing of warm and cold sea water
• OTEC is yet untested on large scale over a long period of time
 Commercial benefits of OTEC
• Helps produce fuels such as hydrogen, ammonia, and
methanol
• Produces baseload electrical energy
• Produces desalinated water for industrial, agricultural, and
residential uses
• Provides air-conditioning for buildings
• Provides moderate-temperature refrigeration
• Has significant potential to provide clean, cost-effective
electricity for the future.
• Specially beneficial for small islands as they can become self-
sufficient
 OTEC R&D history in India

1980 - Conceptual studies on OTEC plants initiated.

1984 - preliminary design for a 1 MW (gross) closed Rankine Cycle
floating plant was prepared by IITM
1993 – NIOT formed
1997 – Government proposed the establishment of the 1 MW plant
NIOT signed a memorandum of understanding with Saga
University in Japan for the joint development of the plant near
the port of Tuticorin

Goals:
The objective is to demonstrate the OTEC plant for one year, after
which it could be moved to the Andaman & Nicobar Islands for power
generation. NIOT’s plan is to build 10-25 MW shore-mounted power
plants in due course by scaling-up the 1 MW test plant, and possibly a
100 MW range of commercial plants thereafter.
Fuel Cells
 Interest in Fuel Cells

• Development of fuel cells has lagged behind:

– Higher cost
– Materials problems
– Operational inadequacies
• During the 20th century as need for electricity increased, primary fuel
sources were still so abundant
• Currently, with a desire to decrease:
– Dependence on fossil fuels and foreign oil supplies
– Emissions of NO2, NO3, SO2, CO2 and their effects on ozone levels, acid
rain, and global warming
• Fuel cells with renewable energy sources
• High electrical efficiency
Auto Power Efficiency Comparison

System
Technology Efficiency
Fuel Cell 24-32%
Electric Battery 26%
Gasoline Engine 20%
 Types of Fuel Cells

• Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)

• Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (Proton Exchange
Membrane) (PEMFC)
• Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)
• Phosphoric-acid fuel cell (PAFC)
• Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)
• Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)
 Fuel Cells: Components and Functions
• MEA = membrane
electrode assembly
(electrolyte and
electrodes)
• Anode = fuel electrode;
electronic conductor and
catalyst
• Cathode = air electrode;
electronic conductor and
catalyst
• Electrolyte = oxygen-ion
conductor, electron
inhibitor
 Alkaline Fuel Cell
• First AFC developed by Francis Bacon (1930s)
• In the Apollo missions
– 85% KOH
– 200-230oC
– Ni anode and NiO cathode
– Acidic fuel cells had been used, but alkaline had faster oxygen
reduction kinetics
– Fuel cells were used to provide electricity, cool the ship, and
provide potable water
 Alkaline Fuel Cell

Anode: C/Pt or Cathode: C/Pt

C/Raney Ni/Pt r.t.-80oC

H2 O2

H2O
1 A/cm2 at 0.7 V
OH-
35%
KOH

O2 + H2O + 2e-  HO2- + OH-

H2 + 2OH-  H2O + 2e- HO2- + H2O + 2e- 3OH-
 Alkaline Fuel Cell

 Advantages:
 Low cost electrolyte solution (KOH 30-35%)
 Non-noble catalyst withstand basic conditions
 O2 kinetics faster in alkaline solution
 OH- v. H2O
 Alkaline Fuel Cell
 Problem Areas and Solutions:
 Catalysts
 Pt – expensive
 Raney Ni – wettability; chemical composition
- Y. Kiros, Pt/Co alloys; similar ability to reduce O2
- E.D. Geeter et. al testing Ag and Co to replace Pt
 Pure gases only
 CO32- builds up in electrolyte and clogs pores
 CO2 + 2OH-  CO32- + H2O
 Fe sponges can be inserted to absorb CO2
 Circling electrolyte can slow build up of CO 32-
 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell

• Used by NASA in Gemini mission

– employed polystyrene sulfonate (PSS) polymer (unstable)
• Nafion – developed by Dupont (1960s)
– Currently used in most PEMs
– Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) backbone with a perfluorinated side chain
that is terminated with a sulfonic acid group
– More stable, higher conductivity
• The Dow Chemical Company
– Developed a polymer similar to Nafion
• Shorter side chain and only one ether oxygen
• No longer available
 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell
• Chemical structure of Nafion

• Hydration of membrane dissociates proton of acid group

• Solvated protons are mobile in polymer and provide
conductivity
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell

Anode: C/Pt 85-105oC Cathode: C/Pt

H2 O2
H+

H2O
NAFION

H2  2H+ + 2e- O2 + 2H+ + 2e-  H2O2

H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e-  H2O

1 A/cm2 at 0.7 V
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell

• Advantages:
– Nonvolatile membrane
– CO2 rejecting electrolyte
– few material problems
• Problems:
– Slow O2 kinetics
– Hydration of membrane is difficult (30-60%)
• Formed at cathode, but difficult to keep in membrane
• Too little = dehydration and loss of ion transport
• Solutions
- Humidify gases
- Impregnate Nafion with SiO2 or TiO2
 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell

Anode: Pt/Ru/C 85-105oC Cathode: Pt/C

N
A
400 mA/cm2 at 0.5V F
at 60oC I
O
N

O2 + 2H+ + 2e-  H2O2

CH3OH + H2O CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-
H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e-  H2O
 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell

 Pt catalyst have highest activity for MeOH oxidation thus far

 Ru enhances MeOH catalytic activity
OH- forms at lower voltage
 CO blocks sites on Pt surface, Ru helps oxidize to CO2
 Direct Methanol Membrane Fuel Cell

• Advantages:
– Direct fuel conversion – no reformer needed, all positive aspects of
PEMFC
– CH3OH – natural gas or biomass
– Existing infastructure for transporting petrol can be converted to MeOH

• Problems:
– High catalyst loading (1-3mg/cm2 v. 0.1-0.3 mg/cm2)
– CH3OH hazardous
– Low efficiency (MeOH crossover – lowers potential)
 Direct Methanol Membrane Fuel Cell

• Solving the Crossover Dilemma

– Alter thickness of polymer membrane
• Thinner = decreases ion flow resistance
• Thicker = decreases MeOH crossover
– Cs+ doped membranes
• Tricolli, University of Pisa, 1998
• Lower affinity for H2O
– MeOH tolerant cathodes
• Mo2Ru5S5 – N. Alonso-Vante, O. Solorza-Feria
– Higher oxygen reduction activity in presence of MeOH
• (Fe-TMPP)2O – S. Gupta, Case Western, 1997
– High oxygen reduction, insensitive to MeOH
 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

• Most commercially developed fuel cell

– Mainly used in stationary power plants
– More than 500 PAFC have been installed and tested around the
world
– Most influential developers of PAFC
• UTC Fuel Cells, Toshiba, and Fuji Electric
 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

Anode: Pt/C 200oC Cathode: Pt/C

CH4 or H2 O2

H+
Si matrix
PTFE binding
separator

100% H2O
H2PO4

H2 – 2e- = 2H+ O2 + 4H+ + 4e-  2H2O

 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

• Advantages:
– H2O rejecting electrolyte
– high temps favor H2O2 decomposition
• O2 + H2O +2e-  H2O2
• Stable H2O2 lowers cell voltage and corrodes electrode
• Problems:
– O2 kinetic hindered
– CO catalyst poison at anode
– H2 only suitable fuel
– low conducting electrolyte
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Carbonate

• Developed in the mid-20th century

• Developed because all carbonaceous fuel produce CO 2
• Using CO32- electrolyte eliminates need to regulate CO 32-
build up
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Carbonate

Anode: Ni/Al or Ni/Cr 580-700oC Cathode: NiO

H2, CxH2x+2 O2, CO2

CO32-
LiAlO3 used to
150 mA/cm2 at
0.8 V at 600oC support
Li2CO3 electrolyte
and
Na2CO3

CH4 + 2H2O  4H2 + CO2 + 4e-

O2 + 2CO2 + 4e-  2CO32-
H2 +CO32-  H2O + CO2 + 2e-
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

• Advantages:
– Higher efficiency (v. PEMFC and PAFC) (50-70%)
– Internal reforming (H2 or CH4)
– No noble metal catalyst (High T increases O2 kinetics)
– No negative effects from CO or CO2

• Problems:
– Materials resistant to degradation at high T
• Ni, Fe, Co steel alloys better than SS
– NiO at cathode leeches into CO32- reducing efficiency or crossing
over causing short circuiting
• Dope electrode and electrolyte with Mg
• Kucera and Myles (LiFeO2 or Li2MnO3 stabilize)
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

• 1899 Nernst observed conduction in various types

of stabilized zirconia at T > 600oC
• 1937 Baur and Preis demonstrated a fuel cell based
on zirconium oxide
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

Anode = NiO-YSZ cermet 800-1000oC Cathode = La1-xSrxMnO3

H2, CxH2x+2 O2

O2- Interconnector
1mA at 0.7V material = Mg
or Sr doped
lanthanum
Y doped chromate
ZrO2

H2 + O2-  H2O + 2e- OR O2 + 2e-  2O2-

CH4 + 4O2-  2H2O + CO2 + 8e-
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

• Advantages:
– Solid electrolyte eliminates leaks
– H2O management, catalyst flooding, slow O2 kinetic are not
problematic
– CO and CO2 are not problematic
– Internal reforming - almost any hydrocarbon or hydrogen
fuel
• Problems:
– Severe material constraints due to high T
• Stainless steal at lower temperatures
• Alloyed metal or Lanthanum Chromite material
 Fuel Cell Stacks
•Individual Cell .5-1.0V
•Increase system voltage by
stacking cells
•Cells’voltages are added in
series; current constant over all
cells
•Interconnects act as flow
channels for gases and
connects anode of one cell to
cathode of the next. Must be
gas tight and made from
conducting material.
 Applications

Fuel cells are being developed for application

in:
Stationary power plants
Automobiles
Portable electronics

To enable mobile power source, fuel must also

be portable
 Hydrogen Storage

• Carbon Nanotubes, Glass Microspheres, Zeolites

– H2 can permeate at elevated P and T
– At ambient T and P, H2 is trapped in structure
– Heating releases H2
 Hydrogen Storage: Gas and Liquid

• Pure H2 gas
– eliminates reformer
– eliminates risk of catalyst degradation from impure fuel
– space limitations
– explosive
• Liquid H2
– highest energy density of any H2 storage method
– limited by boiling point (-253oC)
• 1-2% evaporation each day
 Hydrogen Storage: Metal Hydrides

• A metal alloy exposed to H2  MH

– Upon heating H2 released
– 150-700 cm3/g
• “Powerballs” (Powerball Technology Inc)
– NaH pellets coated in waterproof skin
 Hydrogen Storage: Ammonia Borane

• S. Shore (1955)
– Ammonia Borane H3NBH3
– Advantages over MH
• Air and Water Stable
• Heat to release H2
• 19% wt. storage of H2
– Developed by Millennium Cell
 Hydrogen Storage: Zeolites
• D. Fraenkel (1977)
• Tested by Fritz and Ernst (1995)
– Cs3Na9(AlO2SiO2)12
– Loaded at 2.5-10.0 MPa at 573oC
– 9.2cm3/g
 Advantages/Disadvantages of Fuel Cells

• Advantages
– Water is the only discharge (pure H2)
• Disadvantages
– CO2 discharged with methanol reform
– Little more efficient than alternatives
– Technology currently expensive
• Many design issues still in progress
– Hydrogen often created using “dirty” energy (e.g., coal)
– Pure hydrogen is difficult to handle
• Refilling stations, storage tanks, …
THANK YOU