General Psychology

Chapter : Learning

Kazi Nur Hossain

Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology

Jagannath University, Dhaka – 1100.
Kazinur_207@psy.jnu.ac.bd

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 Contents
 Definition and Nature of Learning
 Factors and Types of Learning
1. Classical Conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning
i) Reinforcement
ii) Punishment
iii) Schedule of Reinforcement
3. Latent Learning
4. Insightful Learning

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 Definition of Learning
 Learning is a relatively permanent change in
immediate or potential behavior that results from
experience.
 This definition has 3 critical aspects:

i) Learning involves a change in either immediate or

potential behavior;

ii) The change must be relatively permanent; and

iii) The change must be due to experience.

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Is any kind of change in Behavior Learning?

 Maturation: Changes in behavior or performance

which are controlled by Genetic Blueprint and
Physical Growth.
 Short-term Changes in behavior: Resulting from
Tension, Fatigue or Drug.

©Habituation:

©Desensitization:

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Types of Learning

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 Types of Learning
 Associative Learning: Occurs when an organism
makes connections between two stimuli or events that
occur together in the environment.
 Classical Conditioning: Organisms learn to associate
events (or stimuli) that repeatedly happens together.
 Operant Conditioning: Organisms learn to associate
events – a behavior and consequence (reinforcement &
punishment).
 Observational Learning: The process of watching
others and then imitating what they do. 6
 Classical Conditioning
 Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a
neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response
after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings
about that response.
 Originated from the experiment of Ivan Pavlov (1872,
Russian physiologist), who won the Nobel Prize in
1904 for his work on digestion.
 It is sometimes called Pavlovian conditioning.
 Pavlov (1972) attached a tube to the salivary gland of a
dog, allowing him to measure precisely the dog’s
salvation.

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 Classical Conditioning (Cont’d)
a. Before Conditioning
Sound of Bell No Response or
(Neutral Stimulus-NS) Irrelevant Response

Meat Salivation
(Unconditioned Stimulus-UCS) (Unconditioned Response-
UCR)

b. During Conditioning
Sound of Bell + Meat Salivation
(NS+ UCS) (UCR)

c. After Conditioning
Sound of Bell Salivation
(Conditioned Stimulus-CS) (Conditioned Response-
CR)
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Figure: Basic Processes of Classical Conditioning
 Basic Processes of Classical Conditioning
a. Before Conditioning
 The ringing of a bell does not bring about salivation-making
the bell a neutral stimulus (NS).
 In contrast, meat naturally brings about salivation, making the
meat an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and salivation an
unconditioned response (UCR).
b. During Conditioning
 The bell (NS) is rung just before the presentation of the meat
(UCS).
 The goal is for the dog to associate the bell (NS) with meat
(UCS) and therefore to bring about the salivation (UCR).
c. After Conditioning
 After a number of pairings of the bell (NS) and meat (UCS),
the bell (conditioned stimulus-CS) alone causes the dog to
salivate (conditioned response-CR).
 The previously neutral stimulus of the bell is now considered a
conditioned stimulus that brings about the conditioned 10
response of salivation.
Stimulus and Response in Classical Conditioning
Stimulus/Response Description
Neutral Stimulus (NS) A stimulus (e.g. sound of bell) that, before
conditioning, does not naturally bring about
the response of interest.
Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus (e.g. meat) that naturally brings
(UCS) about a particular response without having
been learned.
Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no
(UCR) training (e.g., salivation at the smell of meat).
Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus (e.g. sound of bell)
(CS) that has been paired with an unconditioned
stimulus to bring about a response formerly
caused only by the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Response The learned or acquired response to a
(CR) stimulus that did not evoke the response
originally (e.g. salivation at the ringing of a
bell). 11
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 Some Phenomena in Classical Conditioning
Phenomenon Description
Extinction occurs when a previously conditioned
response decreases in frequency and
eventually disappears.

Spontaneous Recovery The reemergence of an extinguished

conditioned response after a period of rest
and with no further conditioning.

Stimulus Generalization The process that occurs when a conditioned

response follows a stimulus that is similar to
the original conditioned stimulus;

Stimulus Discrimination occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct

from one another that one evokes a
conditioned response but the other does not;
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 Applying Classical Conditioning Principles to
Human Behavior
1. Emotional responses (e.g., fear) are especially likely to be
learned through classical conditioning processes.
 Psychologist Watson and Rayner (1920) showed that classical
conditioning was at the root of such fears (CR) by conditioning
an 11-month-old infant named Albert to be afraid of rats (CS).
“Little Albert”, like most infants, initially was frightened (UCR)
by loud noises (UCS) but had no fear of rats (NS).
2. Learning by means of classical conditioning also occurs
during adulthood.
 The sound of dentist drill (CS) makes many people nervous
(CR), probably because it has been associated with pain
(UCS).
 In more extreme cases, classical conditioning can lead to the
development of phobias, which are intense, irrational fears.
For example, an insect phobia might develop in 14
 Applying Conditioning Principles (Cont’d)
someone who is stung by a bee. The insect phobia might be so
severe that the person refrains from leaving home.
 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), suffered by some
war veterans and others who had had traumatic experiences,
can also be produced by classical conditioning. Even years
after their battlefield experiences (UCS), veterans may feel a
rush of fear and anxiety (CR) at a stimulus such as a loud
noise (CS).
3. Classical conditioning also accounts for pleasant experiences.
 For instance, you may have a particular fondness (CR) for the
smell of a certain perfume (CS) because the feelings and
thoughts of an early love come rushing back whenever you
encounter it (UCS).
 Sexual attraction can be influenced by classical conditioning.
 Classical conditioning explains many of the reactions we have
to stimuli in the world around us. 15
 Applying Conditioning Principles (Cont’d)
4. Classical conditioning may develop positive and negative
attitude.
 Advertisers attempt to classically condition favorable
consumer attitudes to products by associating the products
with other positive stimuli, such as famous people, attractive
models, cute animals, or beautiful sceneries.
5. Cancer patients may develop anticipatory nausea and
vomiting (ANV) to stimuli that are paired with their
chemotherapy. ANV is a classically conditioned response.
 Classical conditioning also can increase or decrease immune
system responses.

 But classical conditioning can’t explain all types of learning.

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 Operant Conditioning
• A type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement or
diminished if followed by punishment.
 Operant Conditioning
 Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which a
voluntary response is strengthened or weakened,
depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.
 Thorndike (1898) was exploring how animals (cat) learn to
solve problems and he built a special cage, called puzzle
box, that could be opened from the inside by pulling a string
or stepping on a lever.
 Thorndike (1911) called this learning as instrumental
learning because an organism’s behavior is instrumental in
bringing about certain outcomes.
 Thorndike proposed the law of effect, which states that, in a
given situation, a response followed by a “satisfying”
consequence will become more likely to occur and a response
followed by an “unsatisfying” consequence will become less
likely to occur.
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 Operant Conditioning (Cont’d)
 Skinner coined the term “operant conditioning” because the
organism produces a consequence by operating on its
environment.
 Operant behaviors are behaviors that are emitted rather
than elicited by the environment.
 Skinner conducted study on rat in a chamber called skinner
box, a special chamber used to study operant conditioning
experimentally.
 The basic idea behind operant conditioning is that behavior
is controlled by its consequences.
 There are two types of environmental consequences that
produce operant conditioning:
1. Reinforcement, which strengthen the behavior
2. Punishment, which weaken the behavior
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Operant Conditioning
Skinner box.
 Positive Reinforcement
• Strengthens a response by presenting a stimulus after a
response.
Negative Reinforcement
• Strengthens a response by reducing or removing an
aversive stimulus.
 Operant Conditioning (Cont’d)
Reinforcer

 Reinforcer is any stimulus that increases the probability that

a preceding behavior will occur.
 Reinforcer is any stimulus whose presentation or removal
increases the probability that a preceding behavior will
occur.
 Reinforcer is the stimulus that strengthen a response or
behavior.
 For example: Food is a reinforcer because it increases the
probability the behavior of bar pressing of rat will occur.

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 Reinforcer
• Any event that STRENGTHENS the behavior it
follows.

Two Types of Reinforcement:

Positive and Negative

 Reinforcer

Positive Reinforcer Negative Reinforcer

Primary Reinforcer Secondary Reinforcer

1. Positive Reinforcer
 A positive reinforcer is any stimulus whose presentation
increases the probability that a behavior will occur.
 Positive reinforcers are pleasant stimuli that strengthen a
response or behavior by their presentation.
 For example, if food, water, money, or praise is provided
after a response or behavior, it is more likely that that
response will occur again in the future.
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 Operant Conditioning (Cont’d)
1.1 Primary Reinforcer
 A primary reinforcer is a stimulus that an organism naturally finds
reinforcing because it satisfy biological needs.
 For example, food for hungry person, water for a thirst person,
warmth for a cold person, etc.
1.2 Secondary Reinforcer
 A secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that acquire reinforcing
properties through its association with a primary reinforcer.
 For example, money, praise, performance feedback, and grades
are crucial in everyday life.
2. Negative Reinforcer
 A negative reinforcer is any stimulus whose removal increases
the probability that a behavior will occur.
 Negative reinforcers are aversive or unpleasant stimuli that
strengthen a response or behavior by their removal.
 For example, if you have an itchy rash (unpleasant stimulus) that
is relieved when you apply a certain brand of ointment, you are
more likely to use that ointment the next time you have the itchy
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rash.
 Primary Reinforcer
• An innately reinforcing stimulus
Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer
• A stimulus that gains it reinforcing power
through its association with a primary reinforcer.
• Money is also a GENERALIZED
REINFORCER!
Operant Conditioning
 Punishment
• An event that
DECREASES
the behavior
that it follows.
Two Types of Punishment
• Positive Punishment • Negative Punishment or
• Adding something Omission Training
unpleasant • Taking away something
• Ex.--Spanking pleasant
• Ex.—Taking car away for
bad grades
 Operant Conditioning (Cont’d)
Punishment
 Punishment is the process by which a stimulus decreases
the probability that a previous behavior will occur again.
 Punishment occurs when a response or behavior is
weakened by an outcome that follows it.
Punisher
 Punisher is any stimulus that decreases the probability that
a preceding behavior will occur.
 Punisher is any stimulus whose presentation or removal
decreases the probability that a preceding behavior will
occur.
 Punisher is the stimulus that weaken a response or
behavior.
 For example: if a rat presses a bar and is shocked
immediately afterward, the behavior of bar pressing will
occur less often.
 Punisher has two types: positive and negative punisher.
 Operant Conditioning (Cont’d)
1. Positive Punisher
 A positive punisher is any stimulus whose presentation
decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.
 Positive punishers are aversive or unpleasant stimuli that
weaken a response or behavior by their presentation.
 For example: spanking a child for misbehaving or spending
ten years in jail for committing a crime.
2. Negative Punisher
 A negative punisher is any stimulus whose removal
decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.
 Negative punishers are pleasant stimuli that weaken a
response or behavior by their removal.
 For example: demotion with a cut in pay of an employee
due to a poor job evaluation or no TV for 1 week for two
siblings due to fight over a toy.
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 Operant Conditioning (Cont’d)

Process Behavior Consequence Result

Reinforcement (that strengthen behavior)

Positive Response occurs A pleasant stimulus is Response increases
(good performance) presented (giving (performance
praise) increases)
Negative Response occurs An unpleasant stimulus Response increases
(applying ointment) is removed (relieve from (ointment-using
itchy rash) increases)
Punishment (that weaken behavior)
Positive Response occurs An unpleasant stimulus Response
(two siblings fight is presented (parents decreases (fighting
over a toy) scold or spank them) decreases)
Negative Response occurs A pleasant stimulus is Response
(two siblings fight removed (no TV for 1 decreases(fighting
over a toy) week) decreases)
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 Operant Conditioning (Cont’d)
Schedule of Reinforcement
 Schedule of reinforcement is the different patterns of
frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired
behavior.

Reinforcement Schedule (RS)

Continuous RS Partial/Intermittent RS

Ratio Schedule Interval Schedule

Fixed-ratio Variable-ratio Fixed-interval Variable-

interval
Figure: Classification of Reinforcement Schedules
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Continuous Reinforcement
• Reinforcing the desired response every time it
occurs.

Quick Acquisition
Quick Extinction
Partial Reinforcement
• Reinforcing a
response only part
of the time.
• The acquisition
process is slower.
• Greater resistance
to extinction.
• There are two main types of intermittent schedules: ratio and
interval.

• When a ratio schedule is in effect, the number of responses

determines whether the participant receives reinforcement.

• When an interval schedule is in effect, responses are

reinforced only after a certain interval of time has passed.
 Variable-ratio Schedule

• A schedule of
reinforcement that
reinforces a
response after an
unpredictable
number of
responses.

Example: I give Homer a donut at random

times when he says “DOH!!!”
Fixed-ratio Schedules
• A schedule that reinforces a response only after a
specified number of responses.

Example: I give cookie monster a cookie

every FIVE times he sings “C is for cookie”.
Fixed-interval Schedule
• A schedule of
reinforcement
that reinforces a
response only
after a specified
time has elapsed.

Example: I give Bart a Butterfinger every ten

minutes after he moons someone.
Variable-interval Schedule
• A schedule of
reinforcement that
reinforces a
response at
unpredictable time
intervals.

Pop Quizzes
Operant Conditioning
• Fixed-ratio (FR)
schedules require that a
set number of responses
be made before a
reinforcer is delivered.
• Variable-ratio (VR)
schedules require that the
participant perform
differing numbers of
responses to obtain a
reinforcer.
Operant Conditioning
• With a fixed-interval (FI)
schedule, the time
interval is constant.
• The time interval changes
after each reinforcer is
delivered when a
variable-interval (VI)
schedule is used.
• Ratio schedules generally
produce higher rates of
responding than interval
schedules.
 Operant Conditioning (Cont’d)
Type of When Reinforces are Effect on Rate of
Schedule Delivered Behavior
Ratio
Fixed After a fixed number of High rate of behavior with a
behavior small pause after each
reinforcer
Variable After a variable number of High and steady rates of
behavior behavior
Interval
Fixed After a fixed amount of time Low rates of behavior at the
beginning of the interval and
high rates toward the end
Variable After a variable amount of time Slow and steady rates of
behavior

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 Classical versus Operant Conditioning
Concept Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Basic Building associations between a Reinforcement increases the
principle conditioned stimulus and frequency of the behavior
conditioned response. preceding it; punishment
decreases the frequency of the
behavior preceding it.
Nature of Based on involuntary, natural, innate Organism voluntarily operates
behavior behavior. Behavior is elicited by the on its environment to produce
unconditioned or conditioned a desirable result. After
stimulus. behavior occurs, the likelihood
of the behavior occurring again
is increased or decreased by
the behavior’s consequences.
Order of Before conditioning, an Reinforcement leads to an
events unconditioned stimulus leads to an increase in behavior;
unconditioned response. After punishment leads to a
conditioning, a conditioned stimulus decrease in behavior.
leads to a conditioned response.
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Insightful Learning: happens all-of-a-sudden
through understanding the relationships of
various parts of a problem rather than through
trial and error

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