Introduction

to
Research
Methodology
 What is Research?
● Research of any type essentially refers to a search for
knowledge.
● It can also be understood as a scientific and systematic search
for relevant information about a specific topic.
● There are various definitions of research such as:
“a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search
for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
● It can be said that research is always based on inquisitiveness
and is a journey from the unknown to the known.
 DESIRE TO:
What makes
Obtain a Research Degree
01 With consequential benefits people undertake
research?
Face the challenge in solving
02 unsolved problems

Intellectual joy of doing

03 creative work

04 Be of service to society &

Get respectability
 Objectives of Research
The main purpose of any research is to find answers to questions through the
applications of scientific procedures.

Gain familiarity Portray Frequency with To test hypothesis

with phenomenon characteristics of which something of a causal
or achieve new individual/ group occurs or is relationship
insights associated

Exploratory or Descriptive Diagnostic research Hypothesis-testing

Formulative research
research
 Description as an aim of research
● Pondering more on the description as an aim of the research, it can be seen as one
of the main aims of research.
● It can be referred to as the procedures used to define, classify, catalogue, or
categorize events and their relationships.
● The descriptions of any phenomena are developed using a nomothetic approach. A
nomothetic approach is used to make broad generalizations and laws that apply to
a diverse population.
● While achieving the goal of description then, the researchers aim at describing the
average or the typical performance of any group.
● When describing a population, although we are mindful of the individual differences,
we focus more on bringing to the forefront the similarities.
● On the other hand is the idiographic approach where they focus more on studying
the individual differences rather than the average group behaviour.
● Depending on the research question then, the researcher can decide if they want
to study a group’s behaviour or wish to study an individual’s behaviour.
 Prediction as an aim of research

● Another aim of research is prediction. An important job of many

researchers is to make predictions of later performance.
● When scores on one variable are used to predict the scores on a
second variable, we can say that the two variables are
correlated.
● A correlation exists when particular scores on one variable tend
to be associated with particular scores on another variable.
● While predicting the relationship between two variables, it need
not always be the case that one should focus on knowing why a
relationship exists between two variables.
 Explanation as an aim of research
● Explanation is also an important aim of research. Although description
and prediction are important goals in research, they are only the first
steps in our ability to explain and understand a phenomenon.
● We understand and can explain a phenomenon when we can identify
its causes.
● Researchers suggest that there are 3 important conditions for making
a causal inference or giving an explanation to the occurrence of an
event. That is, covariation of events, a time-order relationship, and
the elimination of plausible alternative causes.
 Application as an aim of research
● The description, prediction and explanation goals of research are futile if the
last aim of research is not fulfilled, which is the application of research.

● Research that is focused on using its findings to apply it to the betterment of

its masses is called applied research.

● But it has to be known that the application based research is an offshoot of

basic research. Theories are also another agent that bind the two types of
researches together.
 Characteristics of Research
• Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
• Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
• It is purposive, i.e., research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
• Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
• Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existing
data for a new purpose.
• Research demands accurate observation and description.
• Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures.
• Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carry out investigation,
search the related literature and to understand and analyze the data gathered.
• Research is objective and logical – applying every possible test to validate
the data collected and conclusions reached.
• Research has to be replicable, reliable, valid.
 Activity
Diagnostic research studies description of an individual or a group

True

False

Ans: False
 Activity
Nomothetic approach is used to make broad generalizations and
laws that apply to a diverse population.

True

False

Ans: True
 Activity
Ideos is Greek word for laws.

True

False

Ans: False
 Activity
A correlation exists when particular scores on one variable tend to
be associated with particular scores on another variable.

True

False

Ans: True
 Activity
A correlation can be positive, negative or zero.

True

False

Ans: True
 Activity
Research that is focused on using its findings to apply it to the
betterment of its masses is called exploratory research

True

False

Ans: False
 Activity
Research is objective and logical.

True

False

Ans: True
 What is a variable?
• Construct
• Variable is concerned with variation in presence of something in person,
object, animal, place or situation or in any natural phenomena.
• To define it, it can be understood as a characteristic that varies in the
context of its value or identity.
• If we want to study the number of members in families of a village, the
number of members will be variable characteristic, because value of this
number will change per family and family will be considered as unit of
study.
• In the same way, if we want to study Mathematical Reasoning Ability
(MRA) of students, MRA will be considered as variable characteristic and
students will be considered as units of study. Units of study is called
subject in research study.
 Types of Variables
Independent Dependent Control
Variable Variable Variable
Manipulated or selected by a Characteristic of a Characteristic of the
researcher in a research participant’s behavior that is participants or of the
observed and measured as environment that is kept
a result of manipulation or constant across all levels of
selection of the independent the independent variable.
variable.

Extraneous Confounding
Variable Variable
Variable that influences the A type of extraneous
outcome of the research variable that affects all
even though they are not the conditions in different ways.
variables under study
 Examples of Variables
1. In a study investigating the impact of different types of media (independent variable) on
consumer attitudes toward a particular brand (dependent variable), researchers might
manipulate the independent variable by exposing participants to advertisements through
various mediums such as television, social media, or print.

2. In a study examining the effects of violent video games (independent variable) on

aggressive behavior (dependent variable) among adolescents, a confounding variable
could be the level of parental supervision. If adolescents who play violent video games
without parental supervision also tend to have less parental involvement overall, it might
be the lack of parental supervision rather than the violent content of the games that
influences aggressive behavior.

3. In a study examining the effects of social media usage (independent variable) on self-
esteem (dependent variable) among teenagers, extraneous variables could include
factors such as peer influence, parental attitudes toward social media, or personality
traits. These variables might influence both social media usage and self-esteem but are
not the variables of interest in the study.
Exposure to Sexual Violence in Gaming Desensitizes Adolescents to
Real-life Violence

The Presence of Strong Female Protagonists in Action Films Increases

Female Audience Engagement

Brand Placements in Short Films influences Consumer Behaviour

Operational Definition of Variables

An operational definition, in Kerlinger's words, is a definition. "that assigns meaning to a

construct or variable by specifying the activities or ' operations' necessary to measure
the construct or variable
 Research Problem
• Kerlinger defines a problem as an interrogative sentence or statement
that asks, “what relation exists between two or more variables”.
• A research problem is an issue or concern that an investigator presents
& justifies in a research study.
• In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of
selecting and properly defining a research problem.
• A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes
susceptible to research.
• We talk of a research problem or hypothesis in case of descriptive or
hypothesis testing research studies. Exploratory or formulative research
studies do not start with a problem or hypothesis, their problem is to find
a problem or the hypothesis to be tested.
Characteristics/Criteria of a good research problem

Interesting Attracts the attention of the researcher and other people to conduct the research project even
without incentive or research grant at all.

Through replicability is allowed, it is advisable that a research problem is something novel,

Innovative original, and unique to attract the attention of the people and contribute to the economic
development of the country.

Should be economical and effective in solving the needs and problems of the society; it should
Cost effective also augment socioeconomic and health conditions of the people and many others

Relevant Relevant to the needs and problems of the people, not for the personal aggrandizement.
Relevant to government’s thrusts. A research problem must Respond to the government’s thrusts.
 Research Problem

● Additionally, a good research problem is measurable and time

bound.
● It should be clear and unambiguous.
 Activity
Create a hypothesis
Identify Independent and dependent variable
Identify possible confounding variables
 Hypothesis
● It is a specific, testable prediction about what is expected to happen in a
study.
● For example:- a study designed to measure the stress level among
working women and non working women. Might have a hypothesis which
states that “stress level will be high in working women than in non
working women”.
● The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an
independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research
hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent
variable. Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or
the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested, are not termed
research hypotheses.
 Objectives of a hypothesis
● Hypothesis is powerful tool for the advancement of knowledge.
● It is a working instrument of theory and also very helpful in
proposing and constructing theory.
● The formulation of hypothesis provide study focus. It tells one
specific aspect of research problem to investigate.
It tells about what data to collect and what not to collect there
by providing focus to the study.
● The construction of hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study.
 Types of Hypothesis

Null Alternate Descriptive

Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis

Relational Causal Working

Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis
 Types of Hypothesis
Null hypothesis
States that there is no significant relation or difference between variables.
For example: “There is no relationship between families’ income level and
expenditure on recreation”

Alternative hypothesis
States that there is differences between the group being studied or a relationship
between the variables being studied. It may or may not specify the direction of the
difference.
For example: There is a relationship between families income level and expenditure
on recreation.
Higher levels of education increase the likelihood of earning a higher income.
 Types of Alternative Hypothesis
Non-directional Hypothesis
States that relation or difference between variables exists (e.g., There is
a difference in Math scores of 10th graders who are taught using
interactive multimedia in comparison to 10th graders are taught using
regular instruction).

Directional Hypothesis
States the expected direction of the relation or difference. (e.g., 10th
graders taught using interactive multimedia score higher on Math than
10th graders who are taught using regular instruction.
 Types of Hypothesis
Descriptive Hypothesis
These are propositions that describe the characteristics (such as size, form or
distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person, organisation,
situation or event.
For example: “The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that of
commerce graduates.”

Relational Hypothesis
These are propositions which describe the relationship between two variables. The
relationship suggested may be positive or negative correlation.
For example: “There is a significant relationship between perceived social support
and psychological well-being.”
 Types of Hypothesis
Working hypothesis:
Working hypothesis is tentative assumption
made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.

While planning the study of a problem, hypothesis are formed. Initially they may not
be very specific. In such cases, they are referred to as ‘working hypothesis’ which are
subject to modification as the investigation proceeds.

Causal hypothesis:
States that the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes or leads to an effect
on another variable. For example:- “Perceived social support has an effect on
individuals’ psychological well-being”
 Characteristics of Hypothesis
Kothari and PPT

Clear & Precise Capable of State relationship

being tested between variables
If not, then hypothesis It can be confirmed or
drawn on its basis cannot disproved by If it is a relational
be taken as reliable. observation. hypothesis.

Limited in scope & Simple Consistent with known

specific facts
Stated in most simple
Narrower hypothesis are terms so that it is easily It should have some
generally more testable understandable. theoretical relevance
 Characteristics of Hypothesis

Able to be tested in Availability of

reasonable time Consistency
Techniques
Two or more
An excellent hypothesis Hypothesis should be propositions logically
should not be used if it related to available derived from the same
cannot be tested within a techniques. theory must not be
reasonable time frame. mutually contradictory.
 Identify Null & Alternative Hypothesis
1. There is no significant difference in brand recognition between participants
exposed to television advertisements and participants exposed to online banner ads.
2. Participants exposed to interactive social media advertisements will exhibit higher
brand recall compared to those exposed to static advertisements.
3. There is no significant correlation between social media usage and perceived
loneliness among young adults.
4. There is no significant difference in audience engagement levels between
traditional print newspapers and online news websites.
5. Increased exposure to violent video games will correlate with higher levels of
aggression among adolescents compared to those with minimal exposure.
6. News articles with emotionally charged headlines will elicit stronger emotional
responses from readers compared to articles with neutral headlines.
Identify Directional & Non Directional Hypothesis
1. There is a relationship between time spent on social media platforms and levels
of perceived social support among college students.
2. As the frequency of social media usage increases, levels of self-esteem among
young adults will decrease.
3. There is a relationship between exposure to political news coverage and levels
of political participation among adults.
4. Increased exposure to celebrity endorsements in advertising will lead to higher
purchase intentions among consumers.
5.The use of fear-based messaging in public health campaigns will result in
greater behavior change among viewers compared to campaigns using
informational messaging.
6. There is a relationship between the use of emotive language in advertisements
and consumer attitudes toward the advertised products.
Designing a Research Plan

1. Information Need felt

2. Define Research Objective
3. Define Research Methodology
4. Plan and Do Research
5. Analysis of Data
6. Report writing & Presentation
7. Marketing & Other Action
Research Process
 STEP 1: Define the Research Problem
Identify & Select Problem
● Sources of problem (Reading, Academic Experience, Daily Experience (life experience),
Exposure to Field Situations, Consultations, Brainstorming, Research (existing), Intuitions
● Criteria of Selection
The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires
evaluation of those alternatives against certain criteria. They are:
1. Internal criteria: Researcher’s Interest, Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own
Resource: finance and time.
2. External criteria: Researchability of the problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the
Problem

Formulating the Research Problem

● Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any,
relating to the problem be resolved.
● Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the
problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of
view.
● This means transforming an idea into a scientifically researchable question.
 STEP 2: Review the Literature
● Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down.
● The researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the
problem.
● Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc.,
must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
● In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another.
The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be
carefully studied.
● This stage not only involves reviewing theories and concepts related to the
research problem, but also involves reviewing previous research findings.
 STEP 3: Development of Working Hypothesis
● Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw
out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
● The hypotheses provide the focal point for research.
● They also affect the type of data that is required and the type of
data analysis that must be conducted to analyse the data.
● The hypotheses should be specific and testable.
● The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting
the area of research and to keep him on the right track.
 STEP 4: Preparing the Research Design
● The researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he
will have to state the conceptual structure within which research
would be conducted.
● There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-
experimental hypothesis testing.
● Selecting a research design is a complex task and the researcher
needs to take into account a number of factors while doing so such
as the time, money and facilities available to take up a research
design as well as the nature of the research question, along with the
type of variables that you are taking into account.
 STEP 5: Determining Sample Design
● All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’.
● Quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study
purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a
sample.
● The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is
popularly known as the sample design. In other words, a sample
design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.
● Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
 STEP 6: Planning Method and Execution of Research

● The methods should be planned in advance so that it leaves ample time for
the researcher to make any adjustments if needed.
● There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ
considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the
disposal of the researcher.
● Primary data can be collected through experiments, surveys or observation
which may lead to quantitative or qualitative measurements.
● Once the method is selected, you select your participants based on your
inclusion and exclusion criteria.
● The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time.
 STEP 8: Analysis of Data & Hypothesis Testing
● The method of data analysis should be carefully chosen while taking into account
the variables, the research problem and the design.
● Researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable
categories.
● In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with
original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to
determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).
● After analysing the data, the researcher tests the hypotheses, if any, he had
formulated earlier.
● Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If
the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalisations established on the
basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches
in times to come.
 STEP 9: Drawing Conclusions

● After data analysis, the last step is to interpret the results and
draw conclusions.
● It is important to draw the results which are in conjunction to the
research problem and the hypothesis.
● It should also be in line with the line with the literature review.
 STEP 10: Report the Findings

● Communicating the results are an important part of the

research process.
● The work can be shared by publishing the research,
presenting the research.
● In this way they are able to help people remain up to date
with the latest progresses in the field
 Activity
Design the research process for the hypothesis created
on day 1
 Research Paradigms
● A paradigm constitutes a set of theories, assumptions, and ideas that
contribute to one’s worldview and approach to engaging with other people
or things.

● It is the lens through which a researcher views the world and examines
the methodological components of their research to make a decision on
the methods to use for data collection and analysis.

● Research paradigms consist of philosophical elements: axiology, ontology,

epistemology

● These elements inform the design and conduct of research projects, and
a researcher would have to consider the paradigms within which they
would situate their work before designing the research
Ontology is defined as how reality is viewed (nature of reality) – accurately
captured as an entity or entities. It is the study of being and describes how the
researcher perceives reality and the nature of human engagement in the world.
It is focused on the assumptions researchers make to accept something as true.
These assumptions aid in orientating a researcher’s thinking about the research
topic, its importance and the possible approach to answering the question.
It makes the researcher ask questions such as:

What is real in the natural or social world?

How do I know what I know?
How do I understand or conceptualise things?
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the study of knowledge
and belief. It describes the ways knowledge about reality is acquired, understood,
and utilised.
This paradigm highlights the relationship between the inquirer and the known –what
is recognised as knowledge. Epistemology is important because it helps to increase
the researcher’s level of confidence in their data.
It influences how researchers approach identifying and finding answers while
conducting research.
In considering the epistemology of research, the researcher may ask any of the
following questions:

What is Knowledge?
How do we acquire knowledge and what are its limits?
Is it trustworthy? Do we need to investigate it further?
What is acceptable knowledge in our discipline?
Axiology refers to the researcher’s understanding of values and their role in
research. It examines values, deals with issues of right and wrong and
measures the level of development and types of perceptual biases. Axiology
explains the role and importance of the research process, considers the
values researchers assign to their research, and guides their pursuit of
knowledge. It makes the researcher consider the following questions:

What should be done to uphold and respect the rights of each participant?
What ethical principles will you follow during your research?
What are the cultural and intercultural issues to be considered in the
research?
How can I conduct the research in a respectful manner?
How can we minimise or reduce risk during the research?
The Four Philosophical Worldviews
● POST POSITIVISTS hold a deterministic philosophy in which causes
(probably) determine effects or outcomes. It is also reductionistic in that the
intent is to reduce the ideas into a small, discrete set to test, such as the
variables that comprise hypotheses and research questions.

● The knowledge that develops through a postpositivist lens is based on careful

observation and measurement of the objective reality that exists “out there” in
the world. Thus, developing numeric measures of observations and
studying the behavior of individuals becomes paramount for a postpositivist.

● Finally, there are laws or theories that govern the world, and these need to be
tested or verified and refined so that we can understand the world. Thus, in
the scientific method—the accepted approach to research by postpositivists—
a researcher begins with a theory, collects data that either supports or refutes
the theory, and then makes necessary revisions and conducts additional tests.
● CONSTRUCTIVISM OR SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM (often combined with
interpretivism) is such a perspective, and it is typically seen as an approach
to qualitative research.

● Social constructivists believe that individuals seek understanding of the world

in which they live and work. Individuals develop subjective meanings of
their experiences—meanings directed toward certain objects or things. These
meanings are varied and multiple, leading the researcher to look for the
complexity of views rather than narrowing meanings into a few categories or
ideas.

● The goal of the research is to rely as much as possible on the participants’

views of the situation being studied. The questions become broad and
general so that the participants can construct the meaning of a situation,
typically forged in discussions or interactions with other persons.
● The more open-ended the questioning, the better, as the researcher listens carefully
to what people say or do in their life settings. Often these subjective meanings are
negotiated socially and historically.

● They also focus on the specific contexts in which people live and work in order to
understand the historical and cultural settings of the participants. Researchers
recognize that their own backgrounds shape their interpretation, and they position
themselves in the research to acknowledge.how their interpretation flows from their
personal, cultural, and historical experiences.

● The researcher’s intent is to make sense of (or interpret) the meanings others
have about the world. Rather than starting with a theory (as in postpositivism),
inquirers generate or inductively develop a theory or pattern of meaning.
● A TRANSFORMATIVE WORLDVIEW holds that research inquiry needs to be
intertwined with politics and a political change agenda to confront social
oppression at whatever levels it occurs (Mertens, 2010). Thus, the research
contains an action agenda for reform that may change lives of the participants,
the institutions in which individuals work or live, and the researcher’s life.

● Moreover, specific issues need to be addressed that speak to important social

issues of the day, issues such as empowerment, inequality, oppression,
domination, suppression, and alienation. The researcher often begins with one of
these issues as the focal point of the study.

● This research also assumes that the inquirer will proceed collaboratively so as
to not further marginalize the participants as a result of the inquiry. In this sense,
the participants may help.design questions, collect data, analyze information, or
reap the rewards of the research.
● Transformative research provides a voice for these participants, raising
their consciousness or advancing an agenda for change to improve their
lives. It becomes a united voice for reform and change.

● This philosophical worldview focuses on the needs of groups and individuals

in our society that may be marginalized or disenfranchised. Therefore,
theoretical perspectives may be integrated with the philosophical
assumptions that construct a picture of the issues being examined, the
people to be studied, and the changes that are needed, such as feminist
perspectives racialized discourses, critical theory, queer theory, and
disability theory
● There are many forms of this philosophy, but for many, PRAGMATISM as a
worldview arises out of actions, situations, and consequences rather than
antecedent conditions.(as in postpositivism). There is a concern with
applications—what works—and solutions to.problems (Patton, 1990). Instead
of focusing on methods, researchers emphasize the research problem.and
use all approaches available to understand the problem

● Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of philosophy and reality. This
applies to mixed.methods research in that inquirers draw liberally from both
quantitative and qualitative assumptions.when they engage in their research

● Individual researchers have a freedom of choice. In this way, researchers are

free to choose the methods, techniques, and procedures of research that
best meet their needs and purposes.
● Pragmatists do not see the world as an absolute unity. In a similar way, mixed
methods researchers.look to many approaches for collecting and analyzing
data rather than subscribing to only one way (e.g., quantitative or qualitative).

● The pragmatist researchers look to the what and how to research based on
the intended.consequences—where they want to go with it. Mixed methods
researchers need to establish a.purpose for their mixing, a rationale for the
reasons why quantitative and qualitative data need to be mixed in the first
place.

● Pragmatists agree that research always occurs in social, historical, political,

and other contexts. In this way, mixed methods studies may include a
postmodern turn, a theoretical lens that is reflective of social justice and
political aims.
Please look at the following research problem:
“Uncovering the Subjective Meanings and Perceptions of Job
Satisfaction Among Employees in Non-traditional Work Environments,
such as Remote or Flexible Settings.”

What kind of worldview would it fall under?

a. Positivist
b.Pragmatic
c. Constructivist
Please look at the following research problem:
"Assessing the Effectiveness of Stress Reduction Programs in
Improving Stress Coping Strategies and Enhancing Well-being in a
Corporate Workplace Setting: A mixed methods approach"

What kind of worldview would it fall under?

a. Positivist
b.Transformative
c. Pragmatic
Please look at the following research problem:
“Examining the effect of Therapy on Reducing Anxiety Levels in Adults
with Anxiety Disorder.”

What kind of worldview would it fall under?

a. Post-Positivist
b.Pragmatic
c. Transformative
Please look at the following research problem:
"Exploring the Empowerment Processes and Resilience Factors
Among LGBTQ+ Youth in Overcoming Minority Stress and Promoting
Positive Mental Health."

What kind of worldview would it fall under?

a. Positivist
b.Transformative
c. Pragmatic
 Research Methodology

Quantitative
Qualitative Research
Research

Mixed Methods
Research
 Qualitative or Quantitative???
Quantitative research uses numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables.
Qualitative research uses non-numerical data like words, images, and sounds to explore
subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes.
Quantitative Research Types
Survey Research

Correlational Research

Causal- Comparative Research

Experimental Research
 Qualitative Research Types
● Phenomenological Research

● Grounded Theory

● Ethnography

● Content or Discourse Analysis

PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH is a design of inquiry coming from
philosophy and psychology in which the researcher describes the lived
experiences of individuals about a phenomenon as described by participants.
This description culminates in the essence of the experiences for several
individuals who have all experienced the phenomenon. This design has strong
philosophical underpinnings and typically involves conducting interviews
It focuses on individual experiences, beliefs, and perceptions.
The Text is used as a proxy for human experience.
The questions and observations are aimed at drawing out individual experiences
and perceptions.
It uses in focus groups, group experiences and normative perceptions are
typically sought out.
In-depth interviews and focus groups are ideal methods for collecting
phenomenological data.
 The Perceptions of Millennials Regarding Television and Social Media
Advertising Platforms: A Phenomenological Study

Abstract
The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to understand the perceptions of
millennials regarding the value, uses, and, gratification gained from television and social
media advertising in terms of
informativeness, irritation, and entertainment. The phenomenological study involved
millennials in a single geographic location in the United States: the southeastern region.
Twenty participants answered the online survey containing closed and open-ended questions.
Data were analyzed using thematic analysis to develop categories and themes. The findings
of this qualitative study provided implications and results regarding the value, uses, and,
gratification gained from television and social media advertising in terms of informativeness,
irritation, and entertainment. Three research questions guided the study: (a) How does
exposure to television and social media advertising fulfill needs for millennials? (b) What
impacts do television and social media advertising have on millennials as sources of
gratification? (c) How do informativeness, entertainment, and irritation of television and social
media advertising affect millennials? The results indicated 12 core themes.
GROUNDED THEORY is a design of inquiry from sociology in which the
researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or
interaction grounded in the views of participants.
This process involves using multiple stages of data collection and the
refinement and interrelationship of categories of information.
It uses Inductive data collection and analytic methods.
It also uses systematic and exhaustive comparison of text segments to build
thematic structure and theory from a body of text.
In-depth interviews and focus groups are the most common data collection
techniques associated with GT.
Sample sizes for grounded theory are more limited because the analytic
process is more intensive and time consuming.
 Over-the-top (OTT) retailing in the post pandemic world. Unveiling
consumer drivers and barriers using a qualitative study
Abstract
Consumers are increasingly moving from traditional television to Over-The-Top (OTT) streaming
platforms. Although OTT platforms are widely used, people's interactions with them vary; some
people use them eagerly, while others are hesitant. There is a need for thorough knowledge of
the underlying elements that affect people's decisions to adopt OTT platforms. OTT platforms
must understand the consumers' perceptions to engage effectively in customer retention and
acquisition. Using the Gioia method, the study adopted the qualitative research approach to
investigate the themes that emerged from the participant's responses and to frame our research
into the context of users' actual experiences by utilizing the grounded-theory methodology. The
extracted themes drawn from the opinion of 50 participants were found to align with the
Innovation Resistance Theory (IRT) and Uses & Gratification Theory 2.0 (UGT 2.0). Aligning with
the IRT theory, the barriers were classified under five sub-themes: usage, value, risk, tradition,
and image. The drivers were mapped with the UGT 2.0 framework comprising of four sub-
themes: modality, agency, interactivity, and navigability. Our study contributes a theoretical
aspect by classifying OTT platform usage behavior in the post-pandemic period.
ETHNOGRAPHY is a design of inquiry coming from anthropology and sociology
in which the researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviors, language, and
actions of an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of
time. Data collection often involves observations and interviews.
It is oriented toward studying shared meanings and practices (i.e., culture).
Emphasizes the emic perspective.
It can have a contemporary or historical focus.
The questions and observations are generally related to social and cultural
processes and shared meanings within a given group of people.
Traditionally, it is associated with long-term fieldwork, but some aspects are
employed in applied settings.
Participant observation is well suited to ethnographic inquiry.
Indian Gaming Zones as Oppositional Subculture: A Norm Incongruity “Cultural
Dissonance” Approach to Internet Gaming Pleasure and Distress
Abstract:
On the basis of participant observation and questionnaire data, we consider the cultural shaping of
video gaming pleasure and distress in face-to-face gaming centers in Udaipur, Rajasthan, India.
We analyze how and why young adult Indian gamers experience their play as both deeply
satisfying and dangerously addictive. To explain this dual consciousness, we join the concept of
cultural consonance (individuals’ relative consistency with their culture) with the theory of cognitive
dissonance (the experience of distress when individuals are unable to eliminate incompatibilities in
conflicting beliefs). Specifically, we consider Udaipuri gamers’ attempts to minimize distress arising
from their commitment to conflicting online and offline cultural norms related to “true gamer” identity
and to local marriage and career expectations—an example of what we call cultural dissonance.
We highlight how our cultural dissonance account of mental well-being is enhanced by examining
intersections of local cultures with global media, attending to the stigma felt by members of
oppositional subcultures, and relying on ethnography. More generally, we illustrate how formal
cultural norm accounts of health developed in psychological anthropology benefit by engaging
broader cultural anthropological theory and method, which refines consonance and dissonance
health explanations in the context of social complexity. This paper, then, is an illustration of the
power of mixing mathematical and ethnographic methods to understand human experience.
DISCOURSE/CONVERSATION ANALYSIS is study of “naturally
occurring” discourse
It can range from conversation to public events to existing documents.
The text and structures within discourse used as objects of analysis.
These linguistically focused methods often use existing documents as
data.
Conversations between individuals that spontaneously emerge within
group interviews or focus groups may be studied but are not preferred.
Participant observation is conducive to discourse analysis if narratives
from public events can be recorded.
The Portrayal of Indian Rural Women on OTT Platforms: A Critical
Discourse Analysis of the Film Jai Bhim
 Mixed Methods Research
Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry that combines or associates
both qualitative and quantitative forms.

It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of qualitative and quantitative

approaches, and the mixing of both approaches in a study.

Thus, it is more than simply collecting and analyzing both kinds of data; it also
involves the use of both approaches in tandem so that the overall strength of a
study is greater than either qualitative or quantitative research
Mixed designs can be differentiated on basis of:

Time- Whether the different methods are done one after the other
(sequentially) or if they are done simultaneously (concurrent)

Weight- Which method is given more weightage within the mixed

methods
 Sequential Designs
The SEQUENTIAL EXPLANATORY strategy is a popular strategy for mixed methods
design that often appeals to researchers with strong quantitative leanings. It is
characterized by the collection and analysis of quantitative data in a first phase of
research followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative data in a second phase
that builds on the results of the initial quantitative results. Weight typically is given to
the quantitative data, and the mixing of the data occurs when the initial quantitative
results informs the secondary qualitative data collection. Thus, the two forms of data
are separate but connected.
The SEQUENTIAL EXPLORATORY strategy involves a first phase of
qualitative data collection and analysis, followed by a second phase of
quantitative data collection and analysis that builds on the results of the first
qualitative phase. Weight is generally placed on the first phase, and the
data are mixed through being connected between the qualitative data
analysis and the quantitative data collection.
In a CONCURRENT TRIANGULATION approach, the researcher collects both
quantitative and qualitative data concurrently and then compares the two
databases to determine if there is convergence, differences, or some combination.
Some authors refer to this comparison as confirmation, disconfirmation, cross-
validation, or corroboration In this approach, the quantitative and qualitative data
collection is concurrent, happening in one phase of the research study. Ideally, the
weight is equal between the two methods
 Research Methods
Data which are originally collected by the investigators are called primary data

Survey- Questionnaires
Interview Method
Observation Method
Case Study Method
Focused Group Discussion
 Survey Method
● A survey method is a research technique that uses standardized
questionnaires or interviews to gather data from a sample of people.
● Surveys are a systematic and quantitative way to collect information on
attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics.
● Data collection surveys collect information from a targeted group of people
about their opinions, behavior, or knowledge.
● While conducting survey research, researchers prefer multiple sources to
gather data such as online surveys, telephonic surveys, face-to-face
surveys, etc.
● The medium of collecting survey data decides the sample of people that
are to be reached out to, to reach the requisite number of survey
responses.
 Questionnaires

● Simplest and most often used method of primary data collection.

● Pre-determined set of questions in a sequential format.
● Designed to suit respondents’ understanding and language
command.
● Conducted to collect useful data from a large population for a short
period of time
Questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or
index, include for instance questions that measure -
● latent traits (e.g. personality traits such as extroversion)
● attitudes (e.g. towards immigration)
● an index (e.g. Social Economic Status).

Four types of response scales for closed-ended questions are distinguished

–
● Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options.
● Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered
options.
● Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered options.

● Continuous (Bounded), where the respondent is presented with a continuous

scale.
There typically is a flow that should be followed when constructing a questionnaire in
regards to the order that the questions are asked. The order is as follows -
● Screens
● Warm-ups
● Transitions
● Skips
● Difficult
● Changing Formula

Screens are used as a screening method to find out early whether or not someone should
complete the questionnaire. Warm-ups are simple to answer, help capture interest in the survey,
and may not even pertain to research objectives. Transition questions are used to make different
areas flow well together. Skips include questions similar to ‘If yes, then answer question 3. If no,
then continue to question 5’. Difficult questions are towards the end because the respondent is in
‘response mode’. Also, when completing an online questionnaire, the progress bars lets the
respondent know that they are almost done so they are more willing to answer more difficult
questions. Open ended question should be at the end because typically they can feel like
personal questions which will make respondents uncomfortable and not willing to finish survey.
 Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction: The basic rules are -
● Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different
subpopulations of the population of interest.
● Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give
different answers.
● Think of having an ‘open’ answer category after a list of possible answers.
● Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.
● Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.
● Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
● Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational
levels.
● Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
● Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like
strawberries and potatoes?).
● Question should not be biased or even leading the participant towards an answer.
Main modes of questionnaire administration are -
● Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer presents the
items orally.
● Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are
presented on paper.
● Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items are presented
on the computer.
● Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where a selection of
items is presented on the computer, and based on the answers on those
items, the computer selects following items optimized for the testee’s
estimated ability or trait.
 Formalised Non formalised

Unconcealed Most research studies use The response categories

Standardized Questionnaires have
like more flexibility
these.
Concealed Used for assessing Questionnaires using
psychographic and subjective projective techniques or
constructs sociometric analysis
 Observation Method
Observational techniques are methods by which an individual or individuals gather first
hand data on programs, processes, or behaviours being studied. They provide evaluators
with an opportunity to collect data on a wide range of behaviours, to capture a great
variety of interactions, and to openly explore the evaluation topic. By directly observing
operations and activities, the evaluator can develop a holistic perspective, i.e., an
understanding of the context within which the project operates. This may be especially
important where it is not the event that is of interest, but rather how that event may fit into,
or be impacted by, a sequence of events.

Scientific observation is a methodical way of recognizing and noting a fact or occurrence,

often involving some sort of measurement. Scientific observations should be specific, and
recorded immediately. Understanding the culture of the people and the ability to interact
with them are essential for good observation. Researches may be based solely on
observation, but in most cases observation precedes other methods of data collection
Advantages
i) Subjective bias may be eliminated, if observation is done accurately
ii) Information relates to current state of affairs ; and it is
iii) Independent of respondents’ willingness or capability to respond.

Limitations
i) A time consuming and expensive method
ii) A limited amount of information may be available; and
iii) Extraneous factors may interfere with the task of observation.
Structured and unstructured observation: in case the observation is characterized by a
careful definition of the units to be observed, the manner of recording the observed
information, standardized conditions of observation, and the selection of pertinent data of
observation, then the observation is called as structured observation. But, when the
observation is conducted without these features thought out in advance, the same is
termed an unstructured observation.

Participant and non-participant observation: this depends on the degree of

involvement of the researcher with the situation being observed. In participant
observation, the researcher who may be an outsider, while observing the group, also
plays the role of a group member. It is necessary to have the observation in an unbiased
way, without getting emotionally involved in the affairs of the group or the community. The
main advantage of participant observation is that, it helps the observer to get an intimate
knowledge of the group or the community being observed, under natural condition. In non-
participant observation, the researcher observes the group or the community, while
maintaining physical and psychological isolation from them. This ensures collection of
information in an objective way.
Controlled and uncontrolled observation: when observation
takes place according to a definite pre-arranged plan involving
experimental procedure, the same is termed a controlled
observation. An uncontrolled observation on the other hand, is
one where the researcher observes the behaviour and activities of
a group under natural conditions (as they are) without any
stimulation from the outside. This method provides a wide range
of information and helps in developing an insight about the group
or community.
 Interview Method

In these methods, the data are collected by presenting stimuli to the

respondents in the form of questions for eliciting appropriate responses from
them. The questions may be presented to the respondents in a face-to-face
situation as oral-verbal stimuli, and the researcher or personnel trained for
the purpose (interviewers, enumerators) note down their oral-verbal
responses. This method is known as the interview method, and the set of
questions is known as the interview schedule.
Informal Conversational The researcher knows the overall research purpose, but there is no
interview formal interview protocol. Questions emerge from the immediate
context and are asked in the natural course of things; there is no
predetermination of question topics or wording

Interview guide approach Topics and issues to be covered are specified on the interview
protocol in advance, in outline form; interviewer decides sequence and
wording of questions during the course of the interview.

Standardised open ended The exact wording and sequence of questions are determined in
interview advance and included on the interview protocol. All interviewees are
asked the same basic questions in the same order. Questions are
worded in a completely open-ended format. The interview protocol will
look like the qualitative (open-ended)

Closed quantitative Questions and response categories are determined in advance and
interview included on the interview protocol. The interview protocol will look
much like a quantitative or mixed questionnaire and it provides a script
for the interviewer to read and mark responses: Responses are fixed;
respondent chooses from among these fixed responses.
Structured interview: For this purpose an interview schedule is used which is
well structured with specific questions to be asked. The questions are precisely
worded and systematically organised, and are prepared in advance after requisite
pre-testing. The interviewer is not expected to make any change while
interviewing the respondents. The data received are comparable and are more
amenable to statistical analyses. The structured interview is also known as
standardized, controlled or guided interview.

Unstructured interview: Here the interviewer proceeds with some well thought
out themes or guidelines to be inquired into, and brings out the required information
from the respondents through the process of conversation. The
situation is free and informal and no interview schedule is used. This provides
more flexibility and freedom, but at the same time demands deep knowledge
and greater skill on the part of the interviewer. The process may yield good
amount of information, but the data lack comparability and are less amenable to
statistical analysis. Unstructured interview is suitable for exploratory or
formulative research studies.
Focused interview: In focused interviews, some specific issue, occurrence, experience,
or event is taken into consideration instead of general aspects of a situation. The
interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence in which the questions
would be asked, and, has also the freedom to explore reasons and motives. The main
task of the interviewer, however, is to confine the discussion to the specific issue under
investigation.

In-depth interview: An in-depth interview is a dialogue between a skilled interviewer

and an interviewee. Its goal is to elicit rich, detailed material that can be used in
analysis. These interviews are designed to discover motives and desires, and, are often
used in motivational research. Such interviews are held to explore needs, desires, and
feelings of respondents. Such interviews are best conducted face to face, although in
some situations telephone interviewing can be successful. In-depth interviews are
characterized by extensive probing and open-ended questions. Typically, the researcher
prepares an interview guide that includes a list of questions or issues that are to be
explored and suggested probes for following up on key topics.
 Focused Group Discussion
Focus groups combine elements of both interviewing and participant observation. Focus
groups capitalize on group dynamics. The hallmark of focus groups is the explicit use of
group interaction to generate data and insights that would be unlikely to emerge without
interaction found in a group. The technique inherently allows observation of group
dynamics, discussion, and firsthand insights into the respondents’ behaviours, attitudes,
language, etc.

Specific applications of the focus group method in evaluations include

• identifying and defining problems in project implementation
• identifying project strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations
• assisting with interpretation of quantitative findings
• obtaining perceptions of project outcomes and impacts
• generating new ideas.
The design of focus group research will vary based on the research question being
studied. Below, highlight some general principles to consider -
1. Standardization of questions - focus groups can vary in the extent to which they
follow a structured protocol or permit discussion to emerge.
2. Number of focus groups conducted - or sampling will depend on the
‘segmentation’ or different stratifications (e.g. age, sex, socioeconomic status,
health status) that the researcher identifies as important to the research topic.
3. Number of participants per group - the rule of thumb has been 6-10
homogeneous strangers, but as Morgan (1996) points out there may be reasons
to have smaller or slightly larger groups.
4. Level of moderator involvement - can vary from high to low degree of control
exercised during focus groups (e.g. extent to which structured questions are
asked and group dynamics are actively managed).
Focus group interviews typically have the characteristics -
● Identify the target market (people who possess certain characteristics).
● Provide a short introduction and background on the issue to be discussed.
● Have focus group members write their responses to the issue(s).
● Facilitate group discussion.
● Recommended size of the sample group is 6 - 10 people as smaller groups may limit the
potential on the amount of information collected, and more may make it difficult for all
participants to participate and interact and for the interviewer to be able to make sense of
the information given.
● Several focus groups should be used in order to get a more objective and macro view of
the investigation, i.e. focusing on one group may give you idiosyncratic results. The use of
several groups will add to the breadth and depth of information. A minimum of three focus
groups is recommended for best practice approaches.
● Members of the focus group should have something in common which is important to the
investigation.
● Groups can either be put together or existing groups - it is always useful to be mindful of
the group dynamics of both situations.
● Provide a summary of the focus group issues at the end of the meeting.
 Case Study Method
The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves
a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family,
an institution, a cultural group, or, even the entire community. It is a method of
study in depth rather than breadth.
The case study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of
events or conditions and their interrelations.
The case study deals with the processes that take place and their
interrelationship.
Thus, a case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit
under consideration.
The object of the case study method is to locate the factors that account for the
behaviour patterns of the given unit as an integrated totality.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

Research Method Research Methodology

Research Method implies the Research methodology signifies
methods employed by the ways to efficiently solving research
researcher to conduct research. problems.

Behavior and instrument used in Science of understanding how

the selection and construction of research is performed methodically.
the research technique. (complete approach towards
(Investigation techniques) attainment of purpose)
ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
● Researchers must consider ethical issues before they begin a research project.
● Not following the ethical code of conduct can also lead to significant legal and
financial penalties for individuals and institutions.
● An important step that researchers must take as they begin to do research is to
gain institutional approval.
● Nearly every college and university require that all research conducted at the
institution be reviewed prior to data collection by an independent committee.
● These institutional review boards have the authority to approve, disapprove, or
require modifications of the research plan prior to its approval of the research
 RISK/ BENEFIT RATIO
● In addition to checking if appropriate ethical principles are being followed,
an IRB considers the risk/benefit ratio for a study.
● Research can also be costly to individual participants if they are harmed
during a research study. The principal investigator must, of course, be the
first one to consider these potential costs and benefits.
● The risk/benefit ratio asks the question “Is it worth it?”
● When the risks outweigh the potential benefits, then the IRB does not
approve the research; when the benefits outweigh the risks, the IRB
approves the research.
 RISK/ BENEFIT RATIO
● Amongst the many factors, the most basic are the nature of the
risk and the magnitude of the probable benefit to the participant
as well as the potential scientific and social value of the
research.
● In determining the risk/benefit ratio, researchers also consider
the quality of the research, that is, whether valid and
interpretable results will be produced.
 Determining Risk
● Determining whether research participants are “at risk” illustrates the
difficulties involved in ethical decision making.
● Researchers must also consider the characteristics of the participants
when they determine risk. Certain activities might pose a serious risk for
some individuals but not for others.
● Internet-based research- violation of privacy and confidentiality
● Risk in asking questions about those issues such as abuse, trauma or
loss.
● A researcher is obligated to protect participants from emotional or mental
stress.
● A study is described as involving “minimal risk” when the procedures or
activities in the study
 Dealing with Risk
● Even if the potential risk is small, researchers should try to
minimize risk and protect participants.
● To protect participants from social risks, information they provide
should be anonymous, or if that is not possible, the confidentiality
of their information should be maintained.
 Dealing with Risk
● When there is potential risk, a researcher must make sure there are
no alternative, low-risk procedures that could be substituted and that
previous research has not already successfully addressed the
research question being asked. Without careful prior review of the
psychological literature, a researcher might carry out research that
has already been done, thus exposing individuals to needless risk.

● Online researchers need to be particularly sensitive to the

possibility of electronic eavesdropping or hacking of stored data
and must take appropriate precautions to minimize social risk
 Informed Consent
● Should always be obtained.
● Informed consent is a person’s explicitly expressed willingness to
participate in a research project based on a clear understanding of
the nature of the research, of the consequences for not participating,
and of all factors that might be expected to influence that person’s
willingness to participate.
● Make reasonable efforts to respond to any questions the participants
have about the research.
● Participants’ consent must be given freely, without undue
inducement or pressure. Participants should also know they are free
to withdraw their consent at any time without penalty or prejudice.
 Informed Consent
● True informed consent cannot be obtained from certain individuals,
such as the mentally impaired or emotionally disturbed, young
children, and those who have limited ability to understand the nature
of research and the possible risks.
● In these cases formal informed consent must be obtained from the
participants’ parents or legal guardians.
 Informed Consent
● Online research poses particular ethical problems for obtaining
informed consent.
● For determining whether participants have understood the informed
consent statement administer short quizzes about its content.
● In some situations researchers are not required to obtain informed
consent. Ex. observing individuals’ behavior in public places without
any intervention.
● IRBs require investigators to document that the proper informed
consent procedure has been followed for any research involving
human participants.
 Deception
● Deception can occur either through omission, the withholding of
information, or commission, intentionally misinforming participants about
an aspect of the research.
● Why is it a used in research?
● One reason is that it is impossible to carry out certain kinds of research
without withholding information from participants about some aspects of
the research.
● In other situations, it is necessary to misinform participants in order to
have them adopt certain attitudes or behaviors.
● Researchers must carefully weigh the costs of deception against the
potential benefits of the research when considering the use of deception.
 Reporting of Research
● Primary goal of publishing research in a journal is to communicate the
results of the study to members of the scientific community and to
society in general.
● Publication credit refers to the process of identifying as authors those
individuals who have made significant contributions to the research
project.
● It is important to acknowledge fairly those who have contributed to a
project.
 Reporting of Research
● Not always easy to to decide whether the contribution an individual
has made to a research project warrants being an “author”
● Also, once authorship is granted, then the order of authors’ names
must be decided.
● When it is about the authorship, especially between a teacher and
a student, they should collaborate in the process of determining
authorship credit and discuss early in the project what level of
participation warrants author credit. The faculty member should
initiate discussions regarding authorship credit for student
contributors.
 Reporting of Research
Plagiarism
● This means presenting substantial portions or elements of another’s
work as your own.
● When your only source for an idea or findings comes from a secondary
source, it is always unethical to report that information in a way that
suggests you consulted the original work.
● Whenever material is taken directly from a source, it must be placed in
quotation marks and the source must be properly identified.
● It is also important to cite the source of material you include in your
paper when you paraphrase (i.e., reword) the material.
 Steps for Ethical Compliance
An ethically informed decision process should include the following steps:
- Review the facts of the proposed research situation (e.g., participants,
procedure).
- Identify the relevant ethical issues, guidelines, and law.
- Consider multiple viewpoints (e.g., participants, researchers, institutions,
society, moral values).
- Consider alternative methods or procedures and their consequences,
including the consequences of not doing the proposed research.
- Authors of manuscripts submitted to a journal must submit forms stating
their compliance with ethical standards.