Chromosomal Basis of

Heredity

DR. ALEX S. PEREZ

The
Cell
Cytoplasm
🠶 Mitochondria
🠶 Golgi apparatus – netlike staining bodies commonly found in cells engaged in
secretion.
🠶 Endoplasmic reticulum – double wallaed membrane folded in layers that
appear to be connected with cell membrane.
🠶 Ribosomes – small particles floating in cytoplasm
🠶 Centrosome and accompanying centriole – organelle that duplicates itself and
shows continuous inheritance between cell generations.
🠶 Chloroplast
Nuc leus
🠶 Primary director of cellular activity and inheritance.
🠶 Surrounded by a double membrane that appears in
contact with the endoplasmic reticulum and cell
membrane.
Chromatin – chromosomes

🠶 Nucleoli maybe found attached to specific chromosome

regions.
Chromosome
struc ture

1. Centrosome or Primary Constriction

🠶 Permanent well defined region on the chromosome where kinetochore
proteins attached to.
🠶 The spindle fibers bind to kinetochore and the depolymerisation of the spindle
fibers enables the c hromosome to move to opposite poles.

🠶 The position of the centromere along the length of the chromosome

during cell division:
Metacentric Chromosomes
🠶 Metac entric c hromosomes have the c entromere in the c enter, such that
both sections are of equal length.

Submetacentric Chromosomes
🠶 Submetacentric chromosomes have the centromere slightly offset from the center leading to a
slight asymmetry in the length of the two sections.

Acrocentric Chromosomes
🠶 Acrocentric chromosomes have a centromere which is severely offset from
the center leading to one very long and one very short section.

Teloc entric C hromosomes

🠶 Telocentric chromosomes have the centromere at the very end of the chromosome.
2. Secondary Constriction
🠶 Pinching off a small chromosomal sections forms the satellite. This often associated
with regions where the nucleolus is formed or attached.

3.Nucleolus-Organizing region
🠶 The organization of nucleolus is the function of a specific point on a particular
chromosome. When the nucleolus is visible, it can be seen to be attached to this
region. The chromosome where this region is located is known as the nucleolus
organizer.
4.Chromomeres and knobs
🠶 String characteristic particle of unequal size and unequal sizes at unequal distances
apart.
🠶 The smaller “bead of string” are called chromomeres and larger ones are called
“knobs”
Cell division
•Mitosis
• 🠶 Mechanism of cell division by which the genetic and chromosome composition
• of a cell is faithfully reproduced in each daughter cells.
• 🠶 Growing cells undergo cell cycle which consists of 4 distinct phases:
• 🠶 G1, S, G2 and M
• 🠶 Interphase – non mitotic stage.
 G-1 phase
🠶 First gap period and longest phase of cell cycle
🠶 The cell increases in volume an building new protoplasm and organelles; secretion granules
and c ell wall materials are also elaborated.
S-phase
🠶 DNA replic ation

G-2 Phase
🠶 Synthesis of RNA and proteins necessary for chromosome synthesis and for mitotic spindle.
🠶 Shorter that G-1 and S phases.

M-Phase
🠶 Structural changes of chromosomes are visible
🠶 Subdivided into stages – prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.
Cell Division

Prophase – Chromosomes condense

enough to be seen with a light
microscope.

🠶 Spindle forms between

the 2
centrioles.
🠶 Spindle fibers attach to
kinetochores.
Metaphase
🠶 of
Alignment
chromosomes thec el
(metaphase
center plate). l
along
of

🠶 Fibers attached to
kinetochores on both
sides of each
chromosome.
Anaphase
🠶 Separation of
the
sister chromatids.

Centromere
🠶 chromatid
splits apartmove
–
s toward
sister opposite
poles.
🠶 Disassembly of
the tubulin
subunits shortens
the
microtubules.
Telophase
🠶 Re-formation of the
nuclei once the
chromosomes are at
opposite poles.
🠶
Chromosomes
unwind.
Cytokinesis
🠶 Division of the cytoplasm.
🠶 Two complete, diploid cells that are
identical to the original cell.
🠶 During cytokinesis in animal
cells, the cell pinches in two.
🠶 A cleavage furrow produced by
microfilaments deepens until the cell
splits.

🠶 In plant cell, cytokinesis is ac c omplished

by formation of cell plate.
 Consequences of Mitosis
🠶 Chromosomes are reproduced and transmitted equally to daughter cells so that
these are identical to each other and to their parent cell.

🠶 Gene arise only by replication of pre-existing genes. A different allele may arise from a
gene only by mutation.
🠶 Both genes and chromosomes are capable of mutation and involved in replicating new
forms.
🠶 The genes retains its individuality regardless of the nature of its allele. The
chromosomes also retain their individuality as indicated by the following proofs:
🠶 Chromosomes hold the same relative position to late anaphase to telophase as they enter
the next prophase in suc c eeding mitosis.
🠶 The parts of the chromosome associated with the nucleolus remain associated during that
interval.

🠶 Homologues that have mutated retain their separate difference, mitosis after
mitosis.
 Cytokinesis
🠶During c ytokinesis in
animal c ells, the cell
pinches in two.
🠶A cleavage furrow
produced by
microfilaments deepens
until the cell splits.
Meiosis

🠶 Chromosome number of the cells is reduced to its half its usual

number
(Sexually reproducing organism).
🠶 This is also preceded by G-1, S and G-2 phases of the cell cycle.
🠶 This consists of 2 nuclear divisions following each other in rapid
consequence:
Meiosis I (reduction division); and Meiosis II ( equation division).
Meiosis I (Reduction Division)
🠶 Prophase I, Metaphase I, Naphase I and Telophase I are observed in
Meiosis.

Prophase I – substage of prophase I are leptotene, zygotene,

pachytene
diplotene and diakinesis.

Leptotene Stage
🠶 The chromosomes are slender, long with many bead-like structures along their
length.
 Meiosis I (Reduction Division)
Zygotene Stage
🠶 The pairing of homologous chromosomes (or chromosomes identical in
their
genetic loci and their visible structure) begins at this stage.
🠶 The paired homologous chromosomes from bivalent (II).
🠶 Synapsis is very precise so that homologous by chrosomome and
proceed in a zipper like fashion.
🠶 Synaptinemal complex
Think crossing over
Pachytene Stage
🠶 The chromosomes are thickened owing to coiling and are
closely appressed that they may not be resolved. Each
chromosomes or bivalent consists of four chromatids.
🠶 During this stage chromatid breaks occur and are
repaired – formation of chiasma at the point of
exchange.
🠶 During this stage, the nucleolus is particularly evident and
certain chromosomes are attached to it: nucleolus organizer.
Diplotene Stage

🠶 The longitudinal separation of bivalents initiates diplonema. The

homologues separate starting from the centromere and proceed
toward both ends except at the chiasmata.

🠶 At this stage, the synaptinemal complex is no longer functional,

hence the separation strands. The chromosomes are actively
shortening and their coiled nature is very apparanet. Later the
chiasmata appear to move toward the end, in the process
known as terminalisation.
 Diakinesis

🠶 The chromosomes become more

contracted and assume unique
configurations due to the repulsion of
the chromatid pairs.
Diakinesis
🠶 During this stage, the nucleolus begins to disintegrate and the spindle
formation begins. The bivalents are distributed evenly in the nucleus.

Metaphase I
🠶 The nuclear membrane disintegrates and the spindle appears. The bivalent move to the
metaphase plate where they become oriented properly.
Anaphase I
🠶 The c hromosome move from the metaphase plate to the poles during Anaphase I
🠶 Accounts for the reductional phase of Meiosis I
Telophase I
🠶 The chromosomes regroup and their coiled structure begin to relax.
Meiosis (Equational Division)
Prophase II
🠶 This stage is similar to mitotic prophase except that is has the chromosome
number. The c hromosomes appear as double structure.

🠶 The nucleolus and the nuclear membrane disintegrate during Prophase II.

Metaphase II
🠶 Two spindles are formed in the position of the nuclei and the chromosomes
align on the
equational plate of their respective spindle.
Meiosis (Equational Division)

Anaphase II
🠶 The daughter c hromosomes move toward the opposite poles.
🠶 The chromosomes at this stage are more like the chromosomes at mitotic
anaphase.
Telophase II
🠶 The chromosomes uncoil and lengthen. The nuclear membrane membrane and
the
nucleolus reappear.
🠶 Eac h of the four daughter c ells is a haploid.
Cytokinesis
In some species, a cross wall is developed at the Metaphase I plate at the end
of Meiosis I and a second wall at right angle to the first develops after Meioies, two walls
develop simultaneously after Meiosis II
 Consequences of Meiosis
🠶 Meiosis II is equational division. Each of the two daughter nuclei of Meiosis I undergo mitosis,
producing four haploid:

🠶 Because of reductional division in meiosis I, meiosis makes possible the conservation of the
chromosome number from generation to generation in the sexually reproducing organisms. The
haploid gamates restore the diploid number after fertilization.
🠶 At Telophase I, each paternal and maternal chromosome has equal probability of being
located at one or other daughter nucleus. Consequently paternal and maternal
chromosomes maybe combined in each gamate.
🠶 At the end of meiosis, each of the four daughter cells contains one representative
of each pair of chromosomes present in the nucleus at the start of meiosis.
🠶 Crossing-over between non-sister chromatids is the mechanism by which genes
maybe shuffled and exchanged.
 Lifecycles
The general pattern of eukaryotic lifecycle
🠶 Diploid phase, which is characterized by a series of mitotic divisions, followed by…
🠶 Meiosis, the first step in gamete formation, which maybe followed by…
🠶 A series of haploid mitotic divisions and then,
🠶 Fertilization or fusion of 2 gametes or haploid nuclei, thus restoring the diploid
phase
Terminal or gametic
meiosis
Intermediary or
sporic meiosis
Initial or zygotic
meiosis
THANK YOU!