Unit 3: Machining

Outline
• Machining Fundamentals

• Turning and Hole Making

• Machining to Produce Various Shapes

• Advanced Machining Processes

3.1 Machining Fundamentals
Mechanics of cutting
The major independent variables in the cutting process are:
(a) tool material and coatings;

(b) tool shape, surface finish and sharpness;

(c) workpiece material and condition;

(d) cutting speed, feed and depth of cut;

(e) cutting fluids;

(f) characteristics of the machine tool; and

(g) workholding and fixturing.

Mechanics of cutting
Dependent variables in cutting are those that are influenced by
changes in the independent variables, and include:
(a)type of chip produced,
(b)force and energy dissipated during cutting,
(c) temperature rise in the workpiece, the tool and the chip,
(d) tool wear and failure, and
(e) surface finish and surface integrity of the workpiece.
Mechanics of cutting
All machining processes involve formation of chips when
cutting the workpiece material with the help of a cutting tool.
The study of the chip formation during machining is carried out
using the 2–dimensional model known as orthogonal cutting

Schematic illustration of orthogonal cutting

9
Mechanics of cutting
During cutting, the workpiece material ahead of the tool tip
suffers plastic deformation and, after sliding on the rake face
of the tool, goes to form the chip. Microscopic examination of
chips obtained in actual machining operations has revealed
that shearing produces them. Shearing takes place along a
shear zone (usually referred as the shear plane) at angle Ф,
also known as shear angle
Mechanics of cutting
Below the shear plane, the workpiece remains undeformed;
above it, the chip that is formed moves up the rake face of the
tool. The chip thickness, tc , can be determined by knowing the

depth of cut, to, rake angle, α and shear angle, Ф. The ratio of

to/ tc is known as the cutting ratio, r.

to sin 
Cutting ratio, r  
tc cos   
Mechanics of cutting
Because the chip thickness always is greater than the depth
of cut, the value of r is less than unity. The reciprocal of r,
known as the chip compression ratio, is a measure of how
thick the chip has become compared to the depth of cut;
hence chip compression ratio always is greater than unity.
Mechanics of cutting
The shear angle has great significance in mechanics of
cutting operations as it influences the force and power
requirements, chip thickness and temperature. Shear angle
can also be calculated from formula below where β is the
friction angle and is related to the coefficient of friction, µ, at
the tool-chip interface by the expression µ = tanβ .
Mechanics of cutting
The relationship between V which is the cutting speed and Vc,
the chip velocity is given in formula below

Vto = Vctc or Vc = Vr

V sin 
Vc 
cos   
Cutting force and power
Knowledge of the cutting force and power involved in
machining operations is important for the following reasons:-

a.Information on the cutting forces is essential so that:

i)Machine tools can be properly designed to minimize distortion
of the machine components, maintain dimensional accuracy of
machined part and help select appropriate tool holders and
work holding devices.
ii)Workpiece is capable of withstanding these forces without
excessive distortion.

b. Power requirement must be known in order to select

machine tool with adequate electric power.
Cutting force and power
The cutting force, Fc, acts in the direction of the cutting speed V,

and supplies energy required for cutting. The thrust force, Ft,
acts in a direction normal to the cutting speed. These two forces
produce the resultant force, R.
Cutting force and power
The resultant force can be resolved into two components on
the tool face: a friction force, F, along the tool chip interface
and a normal force, N, perpendicular to it.

F =R sin β

N = R cos β
Cutting force and power
The resultant force is balanced by an equal and opposite force
along the shear plane and is resolved into shear force, Fs, and

a normal force, Fn.

Shear force, Fs  Fc cos   Ft sin 

Normal force, Fn  Fc sin   Ft cos 

Cutting force and power

The ratio of F to N is the coefficient of friction, µ, at the tool-

chip interface.

F Ft  Fc tan 
Coefficient of friction,   
N Fc  Ft tan 
Cutting force and power
Thrust force in cutting is important because the tool holder,
the workholding devices and machine tool must be sufficiently
stiff to support this force from minimal deflection. If thrust force
is too high or the machine tool is not sufficiently stiff, the tool
will be pushed away from the workpiece surface being
machined. This movement will, in turn, reduce the depth of
cut, resulting in a lack of dimensional accuracy in the
machined part.
Cutting force and power
Power is the product of force and velocity.

Power  FcV

Power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone (energy

required to shear the material) and on the rake face of the
tool (tool-chip interface friction). Therefore power dissipated
in the shear plane and due to friction is given by

Power for shearing  FsVs

Power for friction  FVc

Cutting force and power
Letting ω be the width of cut, the specific energy for shearing, µs

Similarly the specific energy for friction, µf

Total specific energy, µt

µt = µ s + µ f
Temperature in cutting
Temperature rise is an important factor in machining because of its major
adverse effects such as:
a)Excessive temperature lowers the strength, hardness, stiffness and wear
resistance of the cutting tool. Furthermore tools may soften and undergo
plastic deformation thus altering the tool shape.
b)Increased heat causes uneven dimensional changes in the part being
machined, making it difficult to control its dimensional accuracy and
tolerances.
c)Excessive temperature rise can induce thermal damage and metallurgical
changes in the machined surface, hence affecting its properties.
Temperature in cutting
Main sources of heat in machining are:
(a)the work done in shearing in the shear zone,
(b)energy dissipated as friction at the tool-chip interface and
(c)heat generated as the tool rubs against machined surface,
especially for dull and worn tools.
Temperature in cutting
The mean temperature, Tmean, in orthogonal cutting is

0.0006651Y f Vt o 1 / 3
Tmean   
c  
where the mean temperature (Tmean) is in K (Kelvin), Yf is the
flow stress in MPa, ρc is the volumetric specific heat in kJ/m3.K
and α is the thermal diffusivity in m2/s.

Mean cutting temperature increases with workpiece strength,

cutting speed and depth of cut; it decreases with increasing
specific heat and thermal conductivity of workpiece material.
Temperature in cutting
Typical temperature distribution at the cutting zone. The
maximum temperature is about halfway up the tool-chip
interface.
Temperature in cutting
Temperature increases with cutting speed and the highest
temperature is almost 1300oC. The presence of such high
temperature can be observed by the dark bluish colour of the
chips. These red hot chips can be a safety hazard to the
operator. The chip carries away most of the heat generated
during machining. It has been estimated that 90% of the energy
during the operation is dissipated in the chip.
Tool life and wear
Cutting tools are subjected to :-
a)high localised stresses at the tip of the tool,
b)high temperatures especially along the rake face,
c)sliding of the chip along the rake face,
d)sliding of the tool along the newly cut workpiece surface.

These conditions induce tool wear which is a major

consideration in machining operations as it adversely affects
tool life, the quality of machined surface and its dimensional
accuracy and consequently the economics of cutting operations.
Tool life and wear
Two main types of tool wear can be distinguished: -
a)crater wear, 
b)flank wear, Ž
Tool life and wear
Crater wear consists of a concave section on the tool face
formed by the action of the chip sliding on the surface. The
wear is generally attributed to a diffusion mechanics, that is,
the movement of atoms across tool-chip interface. Since
diffusion rate increases with increasing temperature, crater
wear increases as temperature increases. It was observed
that the location of the maximum depth of crater wear
coincides with the location of the maximum temperature at the
tool-chip interface
Tool life and wear
Flank wear occurs on the tool flank as a result of friction
between the machined surface of the workpiece and the tool
flank. Flank wear appears in the form of so-called wear land
and is measured by the width of this wear land, VB
Tool life and wear
Cutting forces increase significantly with flank wear. If the
amount of flank wear exceeds a critical value (VB > 0.5~0.6
mm), the excessive cutting force may cause tool failure. The
crucial wear type from the machining point of view is the flank
wear.
Tool life and wear
Parameters which affect the rate of tool wear are:-a) cutting
conditions (cutting speed V, feed f, depth of cut d),b) cutting
tool geometry (tool orthogonal rake angle) and c) properties of
work material. From these parameters, cutting speed is the
most important one. As cutting speed is increased, wear rate
increases. The relationship between cutting speed and tool
wear time is known as the Taylor tool life equation

VT  C
n
V is the cutting speed, T is the time (in minutes) to
develop flank wear land VB , n is an exponent and
C is a constant.
Tool life and wear
As cutting speed is the important process parameter
associated will tool life followed by depth of cut and feed,
Taylor tool life equation was modified as

VT d f  C
n x y

where d is the depth of cut and f is the feed in mm/rev. The exponents x and y must
be determined experimentally for each cutting conditions.
Cutting tool materials
The selection of cutting tool materials for a particular
application is among the most important factors in machining
operations. Cutting tool is subjected to (a) high temperatures,
(b) high contact stresses and (c) rubbing along the tool-chip
interface and along machined surface. It is therefore important
for cutting tools to be made from materials which have the
following characteristics:-
Cutting tool materials
a)Hot hardness – so that the hardness, strength and wear
resistance of the tool is maintained at the temperatures
encountered in machining operations. Tool material hardness
is a function of temperature. Carbon tool steels, which are
commonly used tool materials until the early 1900s, lose their
hardness at moderate temperatures, indicating that these
materials are not suitable for high speed machining (thus high
temperatures).However, ceramics maintained their hardness
even at high temperatures.
Cutting tool materials
b) Toughness and impact strength – so that impact forces on
the tool encountered repeatedly during cutting operations do
not chip or fracture the tool.
c) Thermal shock resistance – to withstand the rapid
temperature cycling encountered in cutting.
d) Wear resistance – so that an acceptable tool life is
obtained before the tool has to be replaced.
d) Chemical stability and inertness –to avoid or minimise
any adverse reactions, adhesion and tool-chip diffusion that
would contribute to tool wear.
Cutting tool materials
Till about the year 1900s, machining had been carried out
using cutting tools made from plain high carbon steel.
Machining speeds employed at that time were very slow
because of the poor hot hardness of the steel. A big
breakthrough was achieved with the discovery of high speed
steel as a tool material. Its higher hot hardness and improved
wear resistance made it possible to machine materials at much
higher cutting speeds.
Cutting tool materials
The cast alloy tools appeared in 1915 have still higher hot
hardness and wear resistance. Another important
development in cutting tool materials occurred in 1926 when
sintered tungsten carbide tools were manufactured using
powder metallurgy technique. Tungsten carbide tools can be
used at much higher cutting speeds compared to high speed
steel tools. Quite recently cemented titanium carbide has
been exploited as a tool material. Later cemented oxide
tools were developed in the 1960s with permissible speeds
two or three times higher than those of cemented carbides.
Cutting tool materials

Finally boron nitride (CBN) with hardness next only to

diamond was introduced. Permissible speed of these
boronize tools are as high as eight times of those of carbide
tools. Diamond bonded to a carbide base has been also
used as a tool material in today’s machining operations.
Cutting tool materials
In the past, solid single point or multi point tools ground from
HSS were most commonly used for machining operations. After
the cutting tips wear off, the tool has to be removed from the
tool holder and reground. These tool changing operations were
found to be time consuming and inefficient. Furthermore
producing solid cutting tools from carbide materials were found
to be expensive. The need for a more efficient method and
economical cutting tool, has led to the development of inserts.
Inserts are individual cutting tools with several cutting points.
Cutting tool materials

Inserts usually made from carbide are clamped on the tool

holder with various locking mechanism
Cutting fluids
The basic purposes of cutting fluid application in machining are :
a)Cooling of the machined part and the cutting tool to reduce the
detrimental effects of cutting temperature on the job and the tool;
b)Lubrication at the chip–tool interface and the tool flanks to reduce cutting
forces and friction and thus the amount of heat generation;
c)Cleaning the cutting area by washing away the chips which, if present,
interferes with cutting process particular in drilling and tapping ;
d)Protection of the finished surface – a thin layer of the cutting fluid sticks to
the machined surface and thus prevents environmental corrosion.
Cutting fluids
Four general types of cutting fluids commonly used in machining
operations:-
a)Oils including mineral, animal, vegetable, compounded and synthetic oils
typically used for low speed operations where temperature rise is not
significant.
b)Emulsions are mixture of oil, water and additives, generally are used for
high speed operations because temperature rise is significant. The
presence of water makes emulsions very effective coolants.
c)Semisynthetic are chemical emulsions containing little mineral oil, diluted
in water, and with additives that reduce the size of oil particles, making
them more effective.
d)Synthetics are chemicals with additives, diluted in water, and contain no
oil.
Cutting fluids
There are four basic methods of cutting fluid applications in
machining:
a)Flooding is a common method. Flow rates typically range
from 10 L/min for single point tools and 225 L/min per cutter
for multiple tooth cutters. For operations such as drilling and
milling, fluid pressures in the range of 700 to 14,000 kPa are
used to flush away the chips produced to prevent interfering
with the operation.
Cutting fluids

b) Mist supplies fluid to inaccessible areas, similar to

using aerosol can, and provide better visibility of the
workpiece being machined as compared to flood
cooling. It is effective particularly with water based fluids at
air pressures of 70 to 600 kPa. Mist application requires
venting to prevent the inhalation of airborne fluid particles
by machine operator or others nearby.
Cutting fluids
c) High pressure system are effectively used in computer
controlled machine tools. Cutting fluids are supplied to
the cutting zone using specially designed nozzles that
aim a powerful jet of fluid to the cutting zone. The pressure
employed usually within the range of 5.5 to 35 MPa, act as a
chip breaker where the chips produced would otherwise
be long and continuous, interfering the cutting operation.
Cutting fluids
d) ‘Through the cutting tool’ system relates to the narrow
passages produced in the cutting tools as well as in the tool
holders through which cutting fluids are supplied, to the
cutting area, under pressure.
Cutting fluids
Improper selection of cutting fluids, may lead to stress corrosion
cracking in workpiece. Machined parts need to be cleaned and
washed in order to remove any cutting fluid residue which is
considered an operation which is significant in terms of time and
cost. Operators in close proximity with the cutting fluids may be
subjected to severe skin reactions and respiratory problems as
the fluids contain chemical constituents such as sulphur,
chlorine, hydrocarbon and biocides. Furthermore cutting fluids
that are exposed to the environment will undergo chemical
reactions and involve growth of microbes which are hazardous to
3.2 Turning and Hole Making
Turning and hole making

Turning and hole making are machining processes used to

produce round shapes by means of material removal. Turning
is an external material removal process used to produce solid
parts that basically are cylindrical in shape. Where else hole
making is an internal material removal process, used to make
holes which are generally circular in shape on the parts which
have been machined using machine tools such as lathe and
milling.
Turning and hole making
The turning and hole making processes include various
operations for producing a wide variety of shapes.
a)Turning – to produce straight, conical, curved or grooved
workpiece.
b)Facing – to produce flat surface at the end of the part and
perpendicular to its axis. Face grooving is used to produce
grooves on the flat surface.
c)Cutting with form tools – to produce various axisymmetric
shapes for functional and aesthetic purposes.
Turning and hole making
d) Boring - to enlarge a hole or cylindrical cavity made by a
previous process or to produce circular internal grooves.
e) Drilling – to produce a hole which may be followed by boring
to improve its dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
f) Parting – also called cutting off, to cut a piece from the end
of a part, as is done in the production of slugs or blanks for
additional processing into discrete products.
g) Threading – to produce external and internal threads.
h) Knurling – to produce a regularly shaped roughness on
cylindrical surface.
Turning and hole making
Several types of cutting process.
Straight Turning
Straight Turning
Taper Turning
Profiling
Turning & External Grooving
Facing
Face Grooving
Cutting with a form Tool
Boring & Internal Grooving
Drilling
Drilling
Cutting Off
Cutting Off
Threading
Knurling
Knurling
Knurling
Turning process
The majority turning operations involve the use of a single point
cutting tool and performed at various (1) rotational speed, N, (2)
depth of cut, d, and (3) feeds, f. The workpiece will be clamped
in a chuck and rotated while the cutting tool is moved in a linear
motion

Schematic illustration of a basic turning

process
Turning process
The material removal rate (MRR) in turning is the volume of
material removed per unit time.

MRR = π(Davg)(d)(f)N
where f, feed is the distance tool travel in one revolution; d ,depth of cut; N,
rotational speed of the workpiece and Davg average diameter.

Refer figure in previous slide for Do and Df

Turning process
MRR can also be written as

MRR = dfV The unit for MRR is mm3/min.

where V is the linear speed and equal to πDN.

The cutting time, t, for a workpiece of length l can be

calculated by noting that the tool travels at a feed rate of fN=
(mm/rev)(rev/min) =mm/min. Since the distance travelled is l
mm, cutting time is
t = l / fN
Turning forces and torque
The three principle forces acting on a cutting tool are
as below

Forces acting on a cutting tool in turning

Turning forces and torque
The cutting force Fc, acts downwards on the tool tip and thus
tend to deflect the tool downwards and workpiece upward. The
cutting force supplies the energy required for the cutting
operation. The thrust force, Ft, acts in the longitudinal direction.
It is also called the feed force because it is in the feed direction
of the tool. This force tends to push the tool towards the right,
and away from the chuck. The radial force, Fr, acts in the radial
direction and tends to push the tool away from the workpiece.
Turning forces and torque
The product of the cutting force and its radius from the
workpiece center determines the torque on the spindle.

T =FcDavg/2

The power required for cutting is the product of torque (T)

and the spindle speed (ω = 2πN).
Turning process

In turning or machining in general, the usual procedure is to

first perform one or more roughing cuts at high feed rates
and large depths-of-cuts, with little consideration of
dimensional tolerances and surface roughness. These cuts
are followed by a finishing cut, at a lower feed and depth-of-
cut in order to produce a good surface finish.
Lathe components and holding
devices
The turning process is usually carried out on a machine tool
called the lathe.
Lathe components and holding
devices
The main parts of the lathe are: -

1.Bed: The bed is a heavy, rugged casting in which are

mounted the working parts of the lathe. It carries the
headstock, tail stock and provides a base for the movement
of carriage assembly which carries the cutting tool.
2.Legs: The legs carry the entire load of machine and are
firmly secured to floor by foundation bolts.
Lathe components and holding
devices
3. Headstock: The headstock is clamped on the left hand side
of the bed and it serves as housing for the driving pulleys,
back gears, headstock spindle, live centre and the feed
reverse gear. The headstock spindle is a hollow cylindrical
shaft that provides a drive from the motor to work holding
devices.
4. Gear Box: The quick-change gear-box is placed below the
headstock and contains a number of different sized gears.
Lathe components and holding
devices
5. Carriage: The carriage is located between the headstock
and tailstock and serves the purpose of supporting, guiding
and feeding the tool against the workpiece during operation.
The main components of carriage are:
a). The saddle is an H-shaped casting mounted on the top of
lathe ways. It provides support to cross-slide,
compound rest and tool post.
b). The cross slide is mounted on the top of saddle, and it
provides a mounted or automatic cross movement for the
cutting tool.
Lathe components and holding
devices
c). The compound rest is fitted on the top of cross slide and is
used to support the tool post and the cutting tool.
d). The tool post is mounted on the compound rest, and it rigidly
clamps the cutting tool or tool holder at the proper height
relative to the work centre line.
e). The apron is fastened to the saddle and it houses the gears,
clutches and levers required to move the carriage or cross
slide. The engagement of split nut lever and the automatic
feed lever at the same time is prevented by the carriage
along the lathe bed.
Lathe components and holding
devices
Lathe components and holding
devices
6. Tailstock: The tailstock is a movable casting located
opposite to the headstock on the ways of the bed. The
tailstock can slide along the bed to accommodate different
lengths of workpiece between the centers.
7. Feed rod and lead screw: The feed rod is powered by a
set of gears through the headstock. The rod rotates during the
lathe operation and provides movement to the carriage and
the cross slide by means of gears, friction clutch and a
keyway along the length of the rod.
Lathe components and holding
devices
Workholding devices are important as they hold the workpiece
securely while machining operation is being carried. One end
of the workpiece is clamped to the spindle of the lathe by a
chuck, collect, face plate or mandrel.
Lathe components and holding
devices
a.Chuck is generally equipped with three or four jaws. Three
jaws are used for round workpieces (such as bar stock, pipes
and tubing) and four jaws are used for square, rectangular or
odd shaped workpieces. Chuck jaws can be actuated
manually using a chuck wrench or automatically using
pneumatics or hydraulics.
Lathe components and holding
devices
b. Collet is a longitudinally split tapered bushing. The
workpiece with maximum diameter of 25 mm is placed inside
the collet and the collet is fitted into the spindle. One
advantage of using a collet instead of the chuck is that the
collet grips nearly all the part circumference, making it well
suited particularly for parts with small cross-sections.
Lathe components and holding
devices
c. Face plates are used for clamping irregularly shaped
workpiece. The plates are round and have several slots and
holes through which the workpiece is bolted or clamped.
d. Mandrels are placed inside hollow or tubular workpieces and
are used to hold workpieces that require machining on both
ends or on the cylindrical surfaces. Mandrels are mostly
mounted between centers on the lathe.
Drilling process
Drilling is the major and common hole making process where a
drill enters the workpiece axially and cuts a blind hole or a
through hole with a diameter equal to that of the tool. Drills are
rotary end cutting tools having two cutting edges and flutes
throughout the body. Drills usually are made of high speed
steels, solid carbides or with carbide tips.

Drilling process
Drilling process
The most common drill is the conventional standard point twist
drill.
Drilling process
Parts of the twist drill:-

a. Shank - It is the portion of the drill, which is clamped in the

spindle. The shank may be either straight or tapered. End of
the tapered shank is called the tang.
b. Body –It is the portion between shank and point. The body
consists of the following parts:
(i) Flutes: two or more spiral grooves that run the length of the
drill body are called flutes. The flutes have four functions:-
a) form the cutting edge at drill point;
b) curl the chip tightly for easier removal;
Drilling process
c) form channels through which chips can escape from the
hole being drilled;
d)allow the coolant and lubricant to get down to the cutting
edge.

(ii)Margin: it is the narrow strip extending back the entire

length of the flute and forming the full diameter of the drill.

(iii)Body clearance: it is the part of the drill body that has been
reduced in order to cut down friction between the drill and
the wall of the hole.
Drilling process

c. Point - The point is the cone shaped end, which does the
cutting. It consists of the following:
(i) Dead centre: it is the sharp edge at the extreme tip of the
drill. This should always be the exact centre of the drill;
(ii) Lips: these are the cutting edges of the drill.
Drilling process
The material removal rate (MRR) in drilling is the volume of
material removed by per unit time. For a drill with a diameter D,
the cross sectional area of the drilled hole is πD2/4. The
velocity of the drill perpendicular to the workpiece is the
product of the feed, f (distance the drill penetrates per unit
revolution) and the rotational speed, N, where N = V/πD.

MRR = (πD2/4)fN
Drilling process
The more accurate holes in workpieces generally are produced
by the following sequence of operations:
1.Centering
2.Drilling
3.Boring
4.Reaming
Drilling process
Drilling machines are designed primarily for making holes in
metals and other materials; however other operations such as
counterboring, reaming and tapping are often performed with
them. Since hole drilling operations ranges in terms of the hole
size that needs to be made, several kinds of drilling machines
were needed. The three basic types of drill presses are
sensitive, upright heavy duty and radial arm drills.
Boring process
Boring is a process of producing circular internal profiles on a
hole made by drilling or another process. It uses a single point
cutting tool called a boring tool or boring bar. The boring bar
must be sufficiently stiff to minimize deflection, thus maintaining
dimensional accuracy and avoid vibration and chatter.
Boring process
Reaming process
Reaming is an operation used to:-
(a) make an existing hole dimensionally more accurate than
can be obtained from drilling alone, and
(b) improve it surface finish.
Reaming process
Reaming process
A reamer is a multiple cutting edge tool with straight or helical
fluted edges that remove very little material. A further
development in reaming consists of the dreamer - a tool which
combines drilling and reaming. The tip of the tool produces a
hole by drilling and the rest of the same tool performs a reaming
operation. Reamers typically are made of high speed steel, solid
carbide or have carbide cutting edges.
Tapping process
Tapping produces internal threads in workpiece. A tap is a
chip producing threading tool with multiple cutting teeth. Taps
generally are available with two, three or four flutes. . For
higher productivity, drilling and tapping can be combined in a
single tool called drapping. The tool has a drilling section at its
tip following by a tapping section. Taps are usually made of
high speed steel.
Tapping process
Tapping process
3.3 Machining to Produce Various
Shapes
Milling

Milling is the most common form of material removal process,

which can create a variety of features on a part by cutting away
the unwanted material. The process is typically used to
produce parts that are flat and complex in shape. It is also
used to produce features, such as holes, slots, pockets, and
even three dimensional surface contours. There are three
types of milling process; (a) peripheral milling, (b) face milling
and (c) end milling.
Peripheral milling
In this process, the axis of cutter rotation is parallel to the
workpiece surface. Cutters for peripheral milling may have
straight or helical teeth. Helical teeth are preferred in general
as the cutting force and the torque on the cutter is lower,
resulting in a smooth operation and reduced chatter.

Peripheral milling
Peripheral milling

Cutting speed, V, in peripheral milling is the surface speed of

cutter:-

V = πDN
where D is the cutter diameter and N is the rotational speed of the cutter

Feed-per-tooth is:-

f = v/Nn
where v is the linear speed of the workpiece and n is the number of teeth on the cutter
periphery.

Unit for f is mm/tooth.

Peripheral milling
The cutting time, t, is:-

t = l + l c/ v

where l is the length of the workpiece and lc is the horizontal extent of the cutter’s first
contact with the workpiece.

The material removal rate (MRR) is:-

MRR = lwd/t =wdv

where w is the width of the cut which (in slab milling) is the same as the width of the
workpiece and d is the depth of cut.
Face milling
In face milling, the cutter is mounted on a spindle having an
axis of rotation perpendicular to the workpiece surface to
remove material.

Face milling
Milling cutter rotation
The cutter rotation can either be clockwise or counter clockwise
hence the methods can be known as conventional milling and
climb milling
Milling cutter rotation
In conventional milling, the maximum chip thickness is at the
end of the cut as the tooth leaves the workpiece surface. This is
the most common method of milling. In climb milling, cutting
starts at the surface of the workpiece where the chip is thickest.
Climb milling is not suitable for machining workpieces having
surface scale such as forged or casted workpieces.
End milling
End milling is an important and common machining operation
because of its versatility and capability to produce various
profiles and curved surfaces. The cutter called the end mill
usually rotates on an axis perpendicular to the workpiece
surface, and can be tilted to machine tapered or curved
surfaces.

End milling
Toolholders
Depending on the design of the cutter, the following tool
holders are used on milling machines:-
a.Arbors – Tools having bore are mounted on the arbors of the
milling machine.
b.Collets – Collets are available in various designs however the
most commonly used is the spring collet. It is fitted to the
spindle of the milling machine.
Toolholders

Arbor Spring collet

Milling machine

Horizontal and vertical columns and knee type milling machines

Milling machine
Generally columns and knee type milling machine is considered
as commonly used milling machine. Principal components of a
typical milling machine are described as below.
a)Base provides support for all parts of the milling machine
including the column. The base is made of grey iron using the
casting process.
b)Column is a type of rigid vertical long box. It houses the driving
mechanism of the spindle. The knee is also fixed to the guide
ways of the column.
Milling machine

c) Knee can be adjusted at a certain height on the column.

It gives the table vertical movement so that the depth of
cut can be adjusted.
d) Saddle is placed at the top of the knee. Saddle provides
guide ways for the transverse movement of the table.
e) Table rests on the saddle. It consists of “T” shaped slots
for clamping the workpiece. Table moves longitudinally
relative to the saddle.
Milling machine

f) Overhanging arm is mounted on the column and serves as

a bearing support for the arbor. This arm is adjustable so
that the bearing support may be provided near to the milling
cutter. The arm can provide more than one bearing support to
the arbor.
g) Arbor holds rotating milling cutters rigidly and mounted on
the spindle.
Planing and shaping
The planing process is utilized for large components. The
workpiece is fixed to a table that moves back and forth against
single-point cutting tools. The tools are stationary except for
feeding between strokes of the machine.

Planing
Planing and shaping
Shaping is a process similar to planing that is used for smaller
workpieces or smaller surfaces. The workpiece is stationary
(except for feeding between strokes), while the single-point
cutting tool moves. A ram that reciprocates with a linear motion
supports the tool.

Shaping
Planing and shaping

Open side planer Shaper

Grinding
Grinding is a material removal process in which abrasive grains
are contained in a bonded grinding wheel that operates at very
high surface speeds. The grinding process may be a finishing
operation to improve the surface finish of a machined
workpiece or for sharpening of cutting tools.

Grinding process with the grinding wheel

Grinding wheel
A grinding wheel consists of abrasive grains and bonding
material. The bonding material holds the grains in place and
establishes the shape and structure of the wheel. The way the
abrasive grains, bonding material, and the air gaps are
structured, determines the parameters of the grinding wheel,
which are:-
a)abrasive material,
b)grain size,
c)bonding material,
d)wheel grade, and
e)wheel structure.
Grinding wheel
a) Abrasive material
The abrasive materials of greatest commercial importance
today are listed
Abrasive Work material Colour
material
Aluminium
oxide hardened steels, HSS White
97-99% Al2 O3 steels, cast iron Pink to

87-96% Al2 O3 Brown

Silicon carbide HSS, cemented

96-99% SiC carbides Green
<96% SiC aluminium, brass, Black
brittle materials
Cubic boron tool steels, aerospace
nitride (CBN) alloys
Synthetic ceramics, cemented
diamond carbides
Grinding wheel
Grinding wheel
b)Grain size
The grain size of the abrasive particle is an important
parameter in determining surface finish and material removal
rate. Small grit sizes produce better finishes while larger grain
sizes permit larger material removal rates. Grain sizes used in
grinding wheels typically range between 6 and 600. Grit size 6
is very coarse and size 600 is very fine. Finer grit sizes up to
1000 are used in some finishing operations.
Grinding wheel
c) Bonding materials
The bonding material holds the abrasive grains and establishes
the shape and structural integrity of the grinding wheel.
Desirable properties of the bond material include strength,
toughness, hardness, and temperature resistance.
Grinding wheel
d) Wheel grade
Wheel grades indicate the wheel bond strength. It is
measured on a scale ranging from soft to hard. Soft wheels
loose grains easily and are used for low material removal
rates and grinding of hard materials. Harder grades are
preferred for high productivity and grinding of relatively soft
materials.
Grinding wheel

e) Wheel structure
The wheel structure indicates spacing of the abrasive grains in
the wheel. It is measured on a scale that ranges from open to
dense. Open structure means more pores and fewer grains per
unit wheel volume, and vice versa. Open structure is
recommended for work materials that tend to produce
continuous chips, while denser structure is used for better
surface finish and dimensional precision.
Grinding wheel

The major differences between the action of an abrasive grain

and that of a single point cutting tool are as below:-
a)Individual abrasive grains have irregular shapes and are
spaced randomly along the periphery of the wheel.
b)The radial positions of the grains over the peripheral surface
of a wheel vary thus not all grains are active during grinding.
c)Surface speeds in grinding are very high typically 20 to 30
m/s and may be as high as 150 m/s in high speed grinding
using specially designed wheels.
Grinding process
The material removal rate (MRR), for grinding is:-

MRR = dwv

where w is the width of cut in mm, workpiece moves at a velocity, v and d is depth
of metal layer removed during grinding
Grinding process
Forces in grinding are usually much smaller than those in the
machining operations because of the small dimensions
involved. Grinding forces should be kept low in order to avoid
distortion and to maintain the high dimensional accuracy of the
workpiece.
v d 
Grain force   strength of the material
V D 

where wheel rotates at tangential velocity, V, workpiece moves at a velocity, v and d

is depth of metal layer removed during grinding and D is wheel diameter.
Grinding process
Surface temperature rise in grinding has been found to be
related to process variables:-
1/ 2
V 
Temperatur e rise  D d
1/ 4 3/ 4
 
v
Temperature increases with increase in depth of cut, d, wheel
diameter, D, and wheel speed, V, and decreases with the
increasing workpiece speed, v. Peak temperature during
grinding can reach 1600oC.
Grinding ratio

Volume of material removed

Grinding ratio, G 
Volume of wheel wear

Grinding ratios in practice vary widely, ranging from 2 to 200

and even higher, depending on the type of wheel, workpiece
material, grinding fluid, and process parameters (such as
depth of cut and speed of wheel and workpiece).
Grinding operations and machines
Grinding operations are carried out with a variety of wheel-
workpiece configurations. The basic types of grinding are:-
i) surface grinding,
ii) cylindrical grinding, and
iii) centerless grinding.
Grinding operations and machines
Surface grinding - the grinding wheel removes material from the
plain flat surfaces of the workpiece. In surface grinding, the
spindle position is either horizontal or vertical, and the relative
motion of the workpiece is achieved either by reciprocating the
workpiece past the wheel or by rotating it.
Grinding operations and machines
In cylindrical grinding operation, the external or internal
cylindrical surface of a workpiece is ground. In external
cylindrical grinding (also center-type grinding) the workpiece
rotates and reciprocates along its axis, although for large and
long workpieces, the grinding wheel reciprocates. In internal
cylindrical grinding, a small wheel grinds the inside diameter of
the part. The workpiece is held in a rotating chuck in the
headstock and the wheel rotates at very high rotational speed.
Grinding operations and machines

External cylindrical grinding Internal cylindrical grinding.

Grinding operations and machines
Centerless grinding is a process for continuously grinding
cylindrical surfaces in which the workpiece is supported not by
centers or chucks but by a rest blade. The workpiece is ground
between two wheels. The larger grinding wheel does the
grinding, while the smaller regulating wheel, which is tilted at an
angle i, regulates the velocity, Vf of the axial movement of the
workpiece.
3.4 Advanced Machining Processes
Advanced machining processes
Chemical machining
The CM process is carried out by chemical dissolution using
reagents or etchants, such as acids and alkaline solutions. In
chemical milling, a type of chemical machining, shallow
cavities are produced on plates, sheets, forgings and
extrusions. The two key materials used in chemical milling
process are etchant and maskant. Etchants are acid or
alkaline solutions maintained within controlled ranges of
chemical composition and temperature. Maskants are specially
designed elastomeric products that are hand strippable and
chemically resistant to the harsh etchants.
Chemical machining
Steps in chemical milling:-
 Residual stress relieving: If the part to be machined has
residual stresses from the previous processing, these
stresses first should be relieved in order to prevent warping
after chemical milling.
 Preparing: The surfaces are degreased and cleaned
thoroughly to ensure both good adhesion of the masking
material and the uniform material removal.
Chemical machining

Masking: Masking material is applied (coating or protecting areas

not to be etched).
 Etching: The exposed surfaces are machined chemically with
etchants.
 Demasking: After machining, the parts should be washed
thoroughly to prevent further reactions with or exposure to any
etchant residues. Then the rest of the masking material is
removed and the part is cleaned and inspected.
Chemical machining

Chemical machining (CM)

Electrochemical machining
In electrochemical machining, an electrolyte acts as a current
carrier and high rate of electrolyte movement in the tool
workpiece gap (typically 0.1 to 0.6 mm) washes metal ions
away from the workpiece (anode) before they have a chance
to plate onto the tool (cathode). The cavity produced on the
workpiece is the female mating image of the tool shape. The
electrolyte is a highly conductive inorganic fluid, such as an
acqueous solution of sodium nitrite. A DC power supply in the
range of 10 to 25 V maintains current densities.
Electrochemical machining

Electrochemical machining (ECM)

Electrical discharge machining
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) is a controlled thermal
metal-removal process that is used to remove metal by means
of electric spark erosion. In this process an electric spark,
created between tool and workpiece, is used as the cutting tool
to cut (erode) the workpiece to produce the finished part to the
desired shape. With the EDM process both the workpiece
material and the electrode material must be conductors of
electricity.
Electrical discharge machining
The EDM process can be used in two different ways:

1. A preshaped or formed electrode (tool), usually made from

graphite or copper, is shaped to the form of the cavity it is to
reproduce. The formed electrode is fed vertically down and
the reverse shape of the electrode is eroded (burned) into
the solid workpiece.
2. A continuous-travelling vertical tungsten-wire electrode with
diameter as small as 0.1 mm, is controlled by the computer
to follow a programmed path to erode or cut a narrow slot
through the workpiece to produce the required shape.
Electrical discharge machining

Electrical discharge machining Wire electrical discharge

machining
Laser beam machining
Laser-beam machining (LBM) is a thermal material-removal
process that utilizes a high-energy, coherent light beam to melt
and vaporize particles on the surface of metallic and non-
metallic workpieces. Different types of lasers available for
manufacturing operations are; CO2 , Nd:YAG, Nd:glass, ruby
and Excimer lasers. In laser beam drilling, energy which is
transferred via a Nd:YAG laser into the workpiece, melts the
material at the point of contact, which subsequently changes
into a plasma and leaves the region.
Laser beam machining

Laser-beam machining
Electron beam machining
In electron-beam machining (EBM), electrons are accelerated
to a velocity nearly three-fourths that of light (~200,000
km/sec). The process is performed in a vacuum chamber to
reduce the scattering of electrons by gas molecules in the
atmosphere. The electron beam is aimed using magnets to
deflect the stream of electrons and is focused using an
electromagnetic lens. The stream of electrons is directed
against a precisely limited area of the workpiece; on impact,
the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into thermal
energy that melts and vaporizes the material to be removed,
Electron beam machining

Electron beam machining

Water jet machining and abrasive water jet
machining

Water Jet Machining (WJM) uses a fine, high-pressure, high

velocity (faster than speed of sound) stream of water directed at
the work surface to cause slotting of the material. In Abrasive
Water Jet Machining (AWJM), a narrow and focused water jet is
mixed with abrasive particles. This jet is sprayed with very high
pressures, resulting in high velocities that cut through all
materials. The presence of abrasive particles in the water jet
reduces cutting forces and enables cutting of thick and hard
materials
Water jet machining and abrasive water jet
machining
Abrasive jet machining
In abrasive jet machining (AJM), a high velocity jet of dry air,
nitrogen, or carbon dioxide containing particles are aimed at the
workpiece surface under controlled condition. Material removal
takes place due to the erosion of the work piece at the point of
impingement. The impact of the particles develops a sufficiently
concentrated force to perform operations such as (a) cutting
small holes, slots, or intricate patterns (b) deburring or removing
small flash from parts, (c) trimming, (d) removing oxides and
other surface films, and (e) generally cleaning components with
irregular surfaces.
Abrasive jet machining
The abrasive size is in the range of from 10 to 50 µm. There is
some hazard involved in using this process because of
airborne particulates. This problem can be avoided by using the
abrasive water jet machining.

Abrasive jet machining