Diffraction

• Diffraction occurs when waves hit the edge of an obstacle

– “Secondary” waves propagated into the shadowed region
– Water wave example
– Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets
into a shadowed region.
– Excess path length results in a phase shift
– The field strength of a diffracted wave in the shadowed region is
the vector sum of the electric field components of all the
secondary wavelets in the space around the obstacle.
– Huygen’s principle: all points on a wavefront can be considered as
point sources for the production of secondary wavelets, and that
these wavelets combine to produce a new wavefront in the
direction of propagation.
 Diffraction geometry
• Derive of equation 4.54-4.57
Fresnel Screens
 Fresnel Zones
• Bounded by elliptical loci of constant delay
• Alternate zones differ in phase by 180
– Line of sight (LOS) corresponds to 1st zone
– If LOS is partially blocked, 2nd zone can destructively
interfere (diffraction loss) LOS

• How much power is propagated 0 0 o

-10 90
this way?
-20 180 o
– 1st FZ: 5 to 25 dB below
dB -30
free space prop. -40
-50 Obstruction
-60 Tip of Shadow

1st 2nd
Obstruction of Fresnel Zones 
Diffraction geometry
 Diffraction geometry
• Fresnel-Kirchoff distraction parameters,
Fresnel diffraction geometry
Knife-edge diffraction
Knife-edge diffraction loss
Multiple knife-edge diffraction
Measured results
Measured results
 Propagation Models
• Large scale models predict behavior averaged over distances >> 
– Function of distance & significant environmental features, roughly
frequency independent
– Breaks down as distance decreases
– Useful for modeling the range of a radio system and rough
capacity planning,
– Path loss models, Outdoor models, Indoor models
• Small scale (fading) models describe signal variability on a scale of 
– Multipath effects (phase cancellation) dominate, path attenuation
considered constant
– Frequency and bandwidth dependent
– Focus is on modeling “Fading”: rapid change in signal over a short
distance or length of time.
 Free Space Path Loss
• Path Loss is a measure of attenuation based only on the
distance to the transmitter
• Free space model only valid in far-field;
– Path loss models typically define a “close-in” point d0 and
reference other points from there:
2
 d0 
Pr (d ) Pr (d 0 ) 
 d 

d 
PL(d )  [ Pr (d )]dB  PL(d 0 )  2  
 d 0  dB
 Log-distance path loss
• Log-distance generalizes path loss to account for other
environmental factors
– Choose a d0 in the far field.
– Measure PL(d0) or calculate Free Space Path Loss.
– Take measurements and derive  empirically.

d 
PL(d )  PL(d 0 )    
 d 0  dB
Typical large-scale path loss
 Longley-Rice Model
• Point-to-point from 40MHZ to 100GHz. irregular terrain model
• Predicts median transmission loss, Takes terrain into account, Uses path
geometry, Calculates diffraction losses
• Inputs:
– Frequency
– Path length
– Polarization and antenna heights
– Surface refractivity
– Effective radius of earth
– Ground conductivity
– Ground dielectric constant
– Climate
• Disadvantages
– Does not take into account details of terrain near the receiver
– Does not consider Buildings, Foliage, Multipath
• Original model modified by Okamura for urban terrain
Longley-Rice Model, OPNET implementation
 Durkin’s Model
• It is a computer simulator for predicting field
strength contours over irregular terrain.
Adopted in UK
• Line of sight or non-LOS
• Edge diffractions using Fresnel zone
• The disadvantage are that it can not
adequately predict propagation effects due to
foliage, building, and it cannot account for
multipath propagation.
 2-D Propagation Raster data
• Digital elevation models (DEM) United States Geological Survey
(USGS)
 Algorithm for line of sight (LOS)
• Line of sight (LOS) or not
Multiple diffraction computation
 Okumura Model
• It is one of the most widely used models for signal
prediction in urban areas, and it is applicable for
frequencies in the range 150 MHz to 1920 MHz
• Based totally on measurements (not analytical
calculations)
• Applicable in the range: 150MHz to ~ 2000MHz, 1km
to 100km T-R separation, Antenna heights of 30m to
100m
 Okumura Model
• The major disadvantage with the model is its low
response to rapid changes in terrain, therefore the
model is fairly good in urban areas, but not as good
in rural areas.
• Common standard deviations between predicted and
measured path loss values are around 10 to 14 dB.
• G(hre) ：  hte 
G (hte )  20 log   1000m  hte  30 m
 200 
h 
G (hre )  10 log  re  hre  3 m
 3 
 hre 
G ( hre )  20 log   10m  hre  3 m
 3 
Okumura and Hata’s model
 Hata Model
• Empirical formulation of the graphical data in the Okamura
model. Valid 150MHz to 1500MHz, Used for cellular systems
• The following classification was used by Hata:
■Urban area
LdB  A  B log d  E
■Suburban area
LdB  A  B log d  C
■Open area
LdB  A  B log d  D
A  69.55  26.16 log f  13.82hb
B  44.9  6.55 log hb
C  2(log( f / 28)) 2  5.4
D  4.78 log( f / 28) 2  18.33 log f  40.94
E  3.2(log( 11.75hm )) 2  4.97 for large cities, f  300MHz
E  8.29(log( 1.54hm )) 2  1.1 for large cities, f  300MHz
E  (1.11 log f  0.7)hm  (1.56 log f  0.8) for medium to small cities
 PCS Extension of Hata Model
• COST-231 Hata Model, European standard
• Higher frequencies: up to 2GHz
• Smaller cell sizes
• Lower antenna heights

LdB  F  B log d  E  G
F  46.3  33.9 log f  13.82 log hb f >1500MHz
3 Metropolitan centers
G
0 Medium sized city and suburban areas
 Indoor Propagation Models
• The distances covered are much smaller
• The variability of the environment is much greater
• Key variables: layout of the building, construction materials,
building type, where the antenna mounted, …etc.
• In general, indoor channels may be classified either as LOS or
OBS with varying degree of clutter
• The losses between floors of a building are determined by the
external dimensions and materials of the building, as well as
the type of construction used to create the floors and the
external surroundings.
• Floor attenuation factor (FAF)
Partition losses between floors
Partition losses between floors
 Log-distance Path Loss Model
• The exponent n
depends on the
surroundings
and building
type
– X is the
variable in dB
having a
standard
deviation .
PL ( d )  PL ( d 0 ) 10n log( d / d 0 ) X 
Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model
 Attenuation Factor Model
• FAF represents a floor attenuation factor for a
specified number of building floors.
• PAF represents the partition attenuation factor for a
specific obstruction encountered by a ray drawn
between the transmitter and receiver in 3-D
•  is the attenuation constant for the channel with
units of dB per meter.

PL ( d )  PL ( d 0 ) 10nSF log( d / d 0 ) FAF   PAF

PL ( d )  PL ( d 0 ) 10nMF log( d / d 0 )   PAF
PL ( d )  PL ( d 0 ) 10 log( d / d 0 ) d  FAF   PAF
Measured indoor path loss
Measured indoor path loss
Measured indoor path loss
Devasirvatham’s model
 Signal Penetration into Buildings
• RF penetration has been found to be a function of frequency
as well as height within the building. Signal strength received
inside a building increases with height, and penetration loss
decreases with increasing frequency.
• Walker’s work shows that building penetration loss decrease
at a rate of 1.9 dB per floor from the ground level up to the
15th floor and then began increasing above the 15th floor. The
increase in penetration loss at higher floors was attributed to
shadowing effects of adjacent buildings.
• Some devices to conduct the signals into the buildings
 Ray Tracing and Site Specific Modeling
• Site specific propagation model and graphical
information system. Ray tracing. Deterministic
model.
• Data base for buildings, trees, etc.
• SitePlanner