MODIFIERS

Unit Six
Christopher R. Kelley
University of Arkansas School of Law
ckelley.christopher@gmail.com
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 2

Misused Modifiers

• Make sure the words they modify are in the same

sentence (otherwise they are dangling modifiers).

• Keep modifiers close to the word they modify (otherwise

they are misplaced modifiers).

• Squinting modifiers can be read to modify the words on

either side of them.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 3

Dangling Modifiers
• Modifiers are “dangling modifiers” when the words
they modify are not in the sentence.

• The most common dangling modifiers appear at the

beginning of sentences.

• _____________, noun ___________.

• modifier main clause

• Make sure the first key noun following the comma is

the one doing the action in the modifier.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 4

Example – Dangling Modifier

• In measuring damages from a breach of contract, two
distinctions are made.

• Corrected:

• In measuring damages from a breach of contract,

courts make two distinctions.
Or
• When courts measure damages from a breach of
contract, they make two distinctions.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 5

Another Example

• While petitioning for a permit, zoning regulations in

the area were changed.

• Corrected:

• While the homeowner was petitioning for a permit, the

council changed zoning regulations in the area.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 6

Revise

• Wedged in a crack in the sidewalk, Mrs. Harris found

the ring.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 7

Revisions

• Mrs. Harris found the ring wedged in a crack in the

sidewalk.

• Or

• Wedged in a crack in the sidewalk, the ring was found

by Mrs. Harris.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 8

Misplaced Modifiers

• Try to place modifiers right before the words they modify.

• When modifiers move in a sentence, the sentence’s meaning

changes.

• The single-word modifiers that are sometimes misplaced

are the words “only,” “hardly,” “merely,” “just,” and “not.”
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 9

Modifier Placement Changes Meaning

• Only the defendant thought that the car was rented.

• The defendant only thought that the car was rented.

• The defendant thought that the only car was rented.

• The defendant thought that the car was only rented.

 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 10

Revise

• The victim described her attacker as having a tattoo

on his arm, which was shaped like a heart.

• What was shaped like heart: the tattoo or the arm?

• Rewrite this sentence to avoid the “which” clause.

 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 11

Revised to eliminate which

• Original:

• The victim described her attacker as having a tattoo on

his arm, which was shaped like a heart.

• Revised:

• The victim described her attacker as having a heart-

shaped tattoo on his arm.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 12

Another example
• The defendant owned two houses and 10 cows, which
were brown.

• What was brown: the houses or the cows or the houses and the
cows?

• Revised:

• The defendant owned two houses and 10 brown

cows.

• Avoid a which clause when you can.

 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 13

Squinting Modifiers

• A trustee who steals dividends often cannot be

prosecuted.

• What does often modify?

• A trustee who often (frequently) steals dividends

cannot be prosecuted.

• Often a trustee who steal dividends cannot be

prosecuted.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 14

Revise

• The lawyer to whom the brief was delivered

immediately saw the errors.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 15

Revisions

• The brief was delivered immediately to the lawyer,

who saw the errors.

• Or

• The brief was delivered to the lawyer, who

immediately saw the errors.
EXERCISES
The Guide to Grammar and Writing
sponsored by the Capital Community College
Foundation,
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 17

Exercise 1
• Select the correctly written sentence in this group.

• Spending way too much money on his old car, Fred's

salary just wasn't enough.

• Spending way too much money on his old car, Fred

soon found he'd used up his salary.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 18

Exercise 2
• Select the correctly written sentence in this group.

• To become a respected politician, one must

administer campaign funds carefully.

• To become a respected politician, campaign funds

must be carefully administered.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 19

Exercise 3
• Select the correctly written sentence in this group.

• I like to listen to rock music doing my homework.

• I like to listen to rock music while I do my homework.

 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 20

Exercise 4
• Select the correctly written sentence in this group.

• The soccer team only won four games in the last

three years.

• The soccer team won only four games in the last

three years.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 21

Exercise 5
• Select the correctly written sentence in this group.

• Without a plan for the weekend, we decided to take in

a Saturday matinee.

• Without a plan for the weekend, a Saturday matinee

seemed a good idea at the time.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 22

Exercise 6
• Select the correctly written sentence in this group.

• The children were delighted by the monkeys swinging

wildly through the trees.

• Swinging wildly through the trees, the children were

delighted by the monkeys.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 23

Exercise 7
• Which of the following sentences contains a dangling
modifier?

• A. To raise a good dog, patience is useful.

• B. Moving slowly, Bowie stalked the rabbits.
• C. After eating the cat food, Bowie belched.
• D. all of the above
• E. none of the above
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 24

Exercise 7 - Answer

• A. To raise a good dog, patience is useful.

 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 25

Exercise 8
• Which of the following sentences contains a dangling
participial phrase?

• A. Pedrito got into serious trouble missing the

grammar quiz last Monday.
• B. To complete the grammar quiz on time, you will
have to click your heels three times.
• C. When taking a grammar quiz, concentration is
everything.
• D. all of the above
• E. none of the above
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 26

Exercise 8 - Answer

• C. When taking a grammar quiz, concentration is

everything.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 27

Exercise 9
• Which of the following sentences contains a dangling
gerund phrase?

• A. On completing the grammar quiz, spiking your

pencil is acceptable.
• B. Wearing a helmet is a sign of a healthy awareness
of death.
• C. When she talks to her parents, she is reminded
that she is lucky that they are happy and healthy.
• D. all of the above
• E. none of the above
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 28

Exercise 9 - Answer

• A. On completing the grammar quiz, spiking your pencil is

acceptable.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 29

Exercise 10
• Which of the following sentences contains a dangling
modifier?

• A. After washing my car, I waxed it.

• B. After talking with our veterinarian, I felt better
about the prognosis.
• C. She called her boyfriend because she missed him.
• D. all of the above
• E. none of the above
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 30

Exercise 10 - Answer

• E. none of the above

 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 31

Exercise 11
• Which of the following sentences contains a dangling
modifier?

• A. Having worked for the company for twenty years, I

was surprised to learn that my retirement benefits
would not be sufficient.
• B. Having taught phonology every semester for the
last five years, he was eager to teach syntax.
• C. After sweating in Reavis Hall throughout the
summer, I am ready for winter.
• D. all of the above
• E. none of the above
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 32

Exercise 11 - Answer

• E. none of the above

 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 33

Exercise 12
• The sentence "John wants to really do well on this
exam" contains which of the following errors?

• A. dangling modifier
• B. squinting modifier
• C. split infinitive
• D. all of the above
• E. none of the above
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 34

Exercise 12 - Answer

• C. split infinitive
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 35

Exercise 13
• Which of the following sentences has a misplaced
modifier?
• A. He only talks about changing his habits. [Intended
meaning: He only talks but does nothing else, like
consulting a physician or psychiatrist, about
changing his habits.]
• B. A dog appeared in my dreams that sang like an
angel.
• C. The steak on the grill is hers.
• D. all of the above
• E. none of the above
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 36

Exercise 13 - Answer

• B. A dog appeared in my dreams that sang like an angel.

 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 37

Exercise 14
• Which of the following sentences is grammatically correct?

• A. Only Bill wanted to go to the lake. [Intended meaning:

Bill wanted to go to the lake, but no one else did.]
• B. Bill only hinted that he would help us move. [Intended
meaning: Bill hinted but did not, for example, promise
that he would help us move.]
• C. Bill wanted only Mary to win. [Intended meaning; Bill
wanted Mary to win, but did not want anyone else to win.
• D. all of the above
• E. none of the above
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 38

Exercise 14 - Answer

• D. all of the above

 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 39

Exercise 15
• Which of the following sentences has a misplaced
modifier?

• A. The dog bit only the mailcarrier. [Intended

meaning: The dog bit the mailcarrier but didn't bite
anyone else.]
• B. He talked too quickly.
• C. You should consider your options carefully.
• D. all of the above
• E. none of the above
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 40

Exercise 15 - Answer

• E. none of the above

 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 41

Exercise 16
• Which of the following sentences has a misplaced
modifier?

• A. Most stress disorders can be effectively treated with

serotonin-uptake inhibitors.
• B. These disorders include depression, heat intolerance,
onychophagia, pathologic jealousy, dysthymia, and
trichotillomania.
• C. Most dictionaries will not have obscure medical terminology,
although most good dictionaries will have the Latin and Greek
roots that morphologically compose the terminology.
• D. all of the above
• E. none of the above
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 42

Exercise 16 - Answer

• E. none of the above

USE INTRODUCTORY
MODIFIERS
Paul Marx, The Modern Rules of Style
(American Bar Association 2007)
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 44

Use Introductory Modifiers

• Placing a modifier in front of a sentence’s independent

clause and setting it off with a comma will give the
modifier emphasis and vary the construction of your
sentences.

• An independent clause, sometimes called the main clause, is a

clause that can stand alone and be a sentence.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 45

Single-Word Adjectives

• Weary, he fell asleep as the plane landed.

• Frustrated again, he left the meeting in despair.

• Tall, dark, and handsome, the defense attorney

silenced the room when he entered.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 46

Prepositional Phrases

• Before the recess, the meeting was chaotic.

• During the break, the defense attorney conferred with

the prosecutor.

• After two more hours of back and forth, she talked to

her client, who nodded with satisfaction.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 47

Verbal Adjectives
• A verbal is a form of a verb, usually with the ending ed or
ing, that can be used as an adjective.
• They get more emphasis by being placed at the beginning
of the sentence.

• Excited, he slipped and fell.

• Elated, the winner leaped over the net.

• Fuming, he punched the wall and fractured his wrist.

• Cycling, she returned home much later than usual.

 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 48

Verbal Phrases
• A verbal phrase is a form of a verb followed by a related
group of words.

• Changing legalese into plain English, she smiled with

satisfaction.

• Conferring with her partners, she began to shift her

position.

• Sitting across from a person talking on a mobile

phone, she gave up trying to read.
USE TRAILING
MODIFIERS
Paul Marx, The Modern Rules of Style
(American Bar Association 2007)
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 50

Use Trailing Modifiers

• The trailing modifier—the modifier that follows a
sentence’s independent clause and is separated from it
with a comma—gives the reader a sense of fullness.
• Why?
• First, something is said that can stand alone as a sentence.

• But then the comma slows things down, allowing the reader to take
a breath and easily digest another piece of information.

• When that happens, the reader feels grateful, for the change of
pace and for the additional things learned.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 51

Who
• She was very upset about the illness of her boss, who
was the only boss she ever admired.

• In 2004, some voters disliked both George W. Bush

and John Kerry, who had privileged childhoods and
seemed out of touch with the common man.

• The who clause in each of these examples functions as an

adjective.
• It is set off by a comma because it follows an independent clause
that is by itself definitive.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 52

Who, Continued
• When the person spoken of is not clearly identified, do not
use a comma.

• They dislike the secretary who was always making

personal calls.

• All the members of the board were men who had

worked their way to the top.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 53

Whose
• The board meeting would be a referendum on the
chairman, whose personality irritated just about
everybody.

• The senior partner thought it was very important to

learn as much as possible about your adversary,
whose habits and lifestyle could be used against him.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 54

Which
• The School of Law encouraged its students to be
aware of the human dimensions of their writing,
which could make vivid what the lives of their clients
were like.

• She was not happy about working in a fifty-story

building, which in the case of fire would lose its
elevators and whose stairwells were extremely
narrow.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 55

That and Which

• Avoid using that and which interchangeably.

• Which, followed by a comma, is used when the preceding

noun is definitive.

• That, not followed by a comma, is used when the

preceding noun is not definitive.

• They moved to Bethesda, which is in Montgomery

County.
• It is the only airline that still serves complete meals.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 56

Where or When

• General Tommy Franks briefly attended the University

of Texas, where he joined a fraternity.

• The worst year of the Vietnam War was 1968, when

the Tet offensive turned American opinion against the
war.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 57

To State a Causal Relationship

• A trailing modifier in the form of a participial phrase is an
effective way of quickly indicating cause and effect or
effect and cause.

• Voltaire’s knowledge of science was surprisingly deep

[Cause], demonstrating the accessibility of Newton’s
ideas to the layman [Effect].

• Soon after the bombing, Israel was quick to blame al-

Quaeda [Effect], noting the sophistication and scale
of the attacks [Cause].
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 58

To Give an Explanation

• A writer is like a hunter, sometimes waiting in the

blind for something to suddenly turn up, sometimes
roaming through the woods in hopes of finding
something unexpected.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 59

To Give Additional Information

• The mayor left the room, bored by the debate.

• She was offered an internship at White & Case, which

was her first choice.
 ckelley.christopher@gmail.com 60

The End