EVT 352: Research Methods in Home

Economics Unit 1: Introduction

Unit 1: Concept of Research, Importance of Research

Unit objectives

By the end of the Unit, you will be able;

u Identify at least 3 sources of knowledge
u Explain at least 3 sources of knowledge
u explain research
u explain at least 5 importance of
research
Looking for reality
•
An inquiry is a natural human
•
activity. Rationale
– To explain events
- To predict future
events

3
 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

- Personal enquiry
- Tradition
- Authority
- Logic
- Scientific
method

4
 Sources of Knowledge
Logic: reasoning things out.
- deductive
- inductive
u Deductive reasoning: proceeds from general to specific using prescribed rules of logic

e. g. All men
are mortal William Valid and sound
is a man
Therefore William is
mortal
All boys eat apple
Ron eats apple Valid but unsound
Therefore Ron is a
boy when the premise is true that the final statement will be true.
It is only

5
 Sources of Knowledge
u
Inductive reasoning: the opposite of deductive reasoning
this begins with specific observations and based on the
observations a generalization is made.
e. g. Deductive
Every mammal has lungs
All rabbits are mammals
Therefore every rabbit has lungs
Inductive
Every rabbit that has ever been observed has lungs
Therefore every rabbit has lungs

6
 Task
u Identify the source of knowledge
u Deductive reasoning
u Inductive reasoning
u The scientific approach
most prominently used in the following examples:
1. After extensive observation or reactions, Lavoisier concluded that
combustion is a process in which a burning substance combines with
oxygen. His work was the death blow to the old phlogiston theory of
burning.
2. Dalton after much reflection, concluded that matter must consist of
small particles called atoms. His early assumptions became the basis
for the atomic theory.
3. After studying reinforcement theory, a teacher hypothesizes that
using a tutorial computer programme will lead to superior
achievement in arithmetic. She devises a study in which the tutorial
is used with two sixth-grade classes, while conventional materials are 7
used with two other sixth grade classes.
 Sources of Knowledge
u The scientific inquiry/ Research
Is the search for knowledge by using recognized methods in data collection,
analysis and interpretation. The term scientific refers to an approach and is not
synonymous with science. Science is a body of established knowledge whereas
“scientific” refers to the way the knowledge was generated. It is simply an approach
to developing valid and trustworthy knowledge. It is a very orderly process of
knowing.

8
What Research Is

From various authors

- Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic.
- An art of scientific investigation
- A careful investigation or inquiry through the search for new facts
in any branch of knowledge
- Systematized effort to gain new knowledge
- Formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the study
of problems
- Comprises of defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and
evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at
least carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit
the formulating hypothesis.
9
What Research Is
- The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem
- Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on
a particular topic.
- The search for an answer to an unsolved and perplexing question(s) using the
scientific method/approach.
- A cyclical process of steps that typically begins with identifying a research
problem or issue of study. It then involves collecting and analyzing data
and forming an interpretation of the information.
- A systematic investigation to increase knowledge and/or understanding of
aphenomenon.
- Systematic process of collecting and analyzing and interpreting information
(data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which
we are concerned or interested. 10
Keywords
- Systematic process
- Phenomenon
- Increase in understanding/ knowledge
- Analysis and interpretation

11
Research is not
- Sheer gathering of information
- moving of facts from one location to another location
- searching for things or answers to problems without looking
into things critically/ scientifically or taking care
- A catchword for attention
(Leedy & Ormrod, 2005)

12
TASK

Explain in one or two sentences what you consider the meaning of

Research in relation to Home Economics

13
Why do Research?

Research is used to find things out, reaffirm the results of previous

work, solve new or existing problems, support existing theories, or
develop new theories. A research project may also be an expansion on
previous work in the field. In order to test the validity of instruments,
procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior
projects, or the project as a whole.

The primary purposes of research are documentation, discovery and

interpretation, or the research and development of methods and systems for
the advancement of knowledge.
Why Do RESEARCH? (Summary)
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures.
➢
Review or synthesize existing knowledge
➢
Investigate existing situations or problems
➢
Provide solutions to problems
➢
Explore and analyse more general issues
➢
Construct or create new procedures or
➢
systems Explain new phenomenon
➢
Generate new knowledge
➢
Add to knowledge
➢
Improve practice
➢
Inform important policy
➢ issues
Provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system
➢ A combination of any of the
above. ➢ Thus research is the search for knowledge to solve different business, governmental and social
problems. It is an inquiry to discover the unknown. 15
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH/SCIENTIFIC ENQUIRY

Research has one fundamental characteristic: It uses scientific methods to produce evidence and results. It does this
by following rules, so that findings do not depend upon the personal views of the researchers. So what are the rules?
Research;
-Begins with a question, an issue or problem in the mind
of the researcher
- Requires a plan
-Demands a clear statement of the problem
-Deals with the problem through sub-problems
-Seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses or
questions
u Objectivity
-Deals with facts and their meanings
u Control of bias
u Willingness to alter
u beliefs Verification
u Induction and Deduction
u Precision
16
u Truth
 MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH

The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of
the following:
- Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits
- Desire to face the challenge in solving the unresolved problems ie.
concern over practical problems initiates research
- Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
- Desire to be of service to society

17
Unit 2: Classification of research
Classification of Research
u Based on purpose there are three major categories:
u Basic/pure/Fundamental: carried out to test theories, add to
knowledge or broaden knowledge with little or no thought of
application of the results to practical problems.
u Applied/Action: aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation.
u Evaluation: this focuses on a particular practice at a given
site(s).
It involves decision making regarding the (relative) worth, merit
or effectiveness of a particular practice or alternative actions.
19
u Based on research approaches:
-Quantitative: this is based on measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. It uses
objective measurement and statistical analysis of numeric data to understand and
explain phenomena.
-Qualitative: focuses on understanding social phenomena from the
perspective of the human participants in the study. The data are collected in
natural settings and the research aims at generating theory rather than testing
theory. Focuses on understanding and meaning of phenomena through
verbal narratives and observations rather than numbers.
-Mixed methods: integrates both qualitative and quantitative research
methods.
Examples of designs, explanatory design, exploratory design,
triangulation.
u Based on methods
u Experimental: a scientific investigation in which the researcher manipulates
one or more independent variables, controls any other relevant variables and
observes the effect of the manipulations on the dependent variables (s).
Changes are deliberately introduced to observe the consequence of the
changes.
u Non-experimental: this describes and predicts phenomena without
manipulating factors that influence the phenomena. It is not very useful in
describing cause and effect relationships.
Unit 3: Research Procedures
Unit Objectives
At the end of the Unit, you will be able to;
! select a suitable research topic
! perform literature review using print and online data basses
! describe sampling methods used in research
! describe procedures used in the collection of data under various research
approaches
! describe data preparation and analysis procedures
! explain ethical issues in research.
 Research Procedures
! Typical stages in research
! Selecting a problem
! Reviewing the
literature on the problem
! Designing the
research
! Collecting data
! Analysing the data
! Interpreting the
findings and stating
conclusions
24
! Reporting results
The Research Problem
! A research study begins either as a question that the researcher
would like to answer or a problem that he/she would like to solve.
! I n a conventional sense, a problem is a set of conditions
needing discussion, a decision, a solution or information.
! It is the desire to find a solution to or investigate this problem or
question, which motivates the researcher to undertake a study.
The problem that motivates the researcher to undertake his/her
study is what is known as the research problem
! A research problem implies the possibility of
investigation
empirical that is of data collection and analysis.
! Some authors define research problem as being the focus of a
research investigation
! A problem that a researcher wishes to investigate
25
! Is there any condition you want to improve in your community,
or questions that you are seeking answers, is there something you
wish to understand better relating to the programme you are
studying?

Some of these may be research problems

26
 Sources of research problems
! Three important sources of research problems
are:
! Experience
! Deductions from theory
! Related
- Practical situations
literature Others
- Current social and political issues
include

27
! Experience
Our everyday experiences provide us with rich supply of
problems for investigation. Some research ideas come from
ones interest, personal and practical experiences.
Question: have you ever been confronted with a situation
that you found puzzling and problematic? If you have ever
asked such questions as:
- Why are things done this way?
- What method would work better?
- What if I do it this way what would happen?
Then just know that you may be on your way to developing
a research idea. 28
 - Deductions from theory
The deductions or predictions that a researcher can make from
various educational and behavioral theories with which he/she is
familiar can provide a source of problem for investigation. Theories
are general explanations of behaviour or the way things operate or
occur. They contain generalizations and hypothesized principles
that should be subjected to thorough and exact scientific
investigation.
! Another way to apply theories is to directly test, revise or
clarify an existing theory. With this the intension is to develop
and change the theory rather than to test its implications

29
Literature : books and writings published on a particular subject
- Literature
Ideas for research problems often come from reading literature in your area of
interest. In reading about previous research, you will find research problems as
well as the way research is conducted.
- Review of previous research can help in formulating new research problems
in various ways which include:
- Help the researcher in formulating questions that are the next logical step
from previous investigations
- Stimulate the researcher to see whether the procedures employed can be
adapted to solving other problems or whether a similar study could be
conducted in a different field or subject area or with different groups of
subjects
30
- May suggest the desirability of replication to confirm previous findings
 Characteristics of a good researchable problem
! It should be clear and unambiguous
! It should be researchable
! The problem should not represent a moral or ethical
position
! The problem must be significant
! The problem must be feasible
! It should be ethically appropriate

31
Questions to Ask Yourself When Deciding on a
Topic
! Criteria that could be used to evaluate a research problem

Are you interested enough in the topic?

You need to be motivated to start your project, carry out the research, and see it through to
the end.
Do you know enough about the general context of the topic you want to work on?
You need this to be able to develop a decent account of what you are looking for in your
research. If you lack this knowledge, you’ll need time to develop it.
Can you refine your topic down to a description of doable research? Do you know how you
will actually do the research?
You will need the appropriate data gathering skills and competencies—or the time to learn
them before starting your research.
Do you know what resources you need to do the research?
32
You’ll also need to know how and where to get
them.
Do you know what kind of ethical approval you need?
You’ll need to get this organized in time to start the research.
Can your project be done in the time available?
Can you get access to the research context?
You also need to know how you’ll get that access.
Can you work out a timetable for getting the research done and written
up?

! Is the problem researchable?

! Is the problem important in terms of contributing to understanding of the issues
being investigated?
! Is the problem clear?
Note
How Can I Decide What to Study?
First, you should think about these three points:
-Your project must be something that interests you enough to keep you motivated to
start researching it, keep researching it and finish writing it up. If possible, do
research on something you are fascinated by or on an issue you are passionate
about.
-You must have enough understanding of the area you’re interested in to do
something useful when you investigate it. Think about what you know about the way
that social scientists engage with your topic area and be willing to read around your
topic to learn what you don’t already know.
-You may be lucky enough to be able to embark on a project which is entirely your
own. You may be working on a project which your university supervisor has designed
already. Or, you may be employed as a professional researcher on a project defined
by someone else. Whatever your circumstances, choice remains an important
consideration. You need to like your topic to have the motivation to succeed.
 Note: How Do I Identify a Good Research Topic?

• Can you physically access the locus of your research?

• Are there gatekeepers who will be able to grant or deny you access?
• Will there be political or administrative obstacles?
• Can you reach the people you need to interview, survey, or
observe?
• Do you have the language skills you need?
• If you’re using documents or data that already exist, can you access the materials you
need
in archives, physically, or online?

• A good research topic is one which you can do with the time and resources you have.
Remember, time is money—your own time is a major resource. The resources you have
will influence how you will do the research, but you need to have enough to do justice to the
topic.
 Literature Review
! Literature review involves the systematic identification, location and
analysis of documents containing information related to the research
problem.
! The documents containing information include periodicals, abstracts,
books and other research reports.
Importance/ purpose of literature review
1. Refining/delimiting research problem
2.
3.
Identifying useful methodological techniques
Avoidance of unintentional replication
4. Facilitating the interpretation of results
5. Identifying contradictory findings
6. Developing research hypotheses/questions
7. Desirable replication 36
Further details of importance of Lit. Review
! It can offer new ideas, perspectives and approaches that may not have
occurred to you.
! It can inform you about other researchers who conduct work in the area –
individuals whom you may wish to contact for advice or feedback
! It can show you how others have handled methodological and design
issues in studies similar to your own.
! It can reveal sources of data that you may not have known existed.
! It can introduce you to measurement tools that other researchers have
developed and used
! effectively.
It will bolster your confidence that your topic is one worth studying,
because you will find that others have invested considerable time and
resources in studying it.
In a nutshell, the more you know about investigations and perspectives related
to your topic, the more effectively you can tackle your own research problem.
37
Sources of Documents for Review

! Secondary sources
! Primary sources
Secondary Sources
A secondary source is a description of a study or studies prepared
by someone other than the original researcher.
It is one that reviews, summarizes or discusses someone’s
else’s research.
Eg. Review articles and research in books and journals, text books,
encyclopedias etc.

38
 Importance of Secondary Sources
! Secondary sources are useful in providing
bibliographical information on relevant primary sources
! They provide an overview of the topic, often citing relevant
research studies and important primary sources

Its limitation is that they are rarely possible to achieve complete

objectivity in summarizing and reviewing written materials. It could
be possible that the researcher or author did not accurately report the
research since they combine the information from other secondary
sources and actual studies.
39
Primary Sources
! A primary source in relation to research literature, is the
description of an investigation written by the person who
conducted it.
! They are the original articles and reports in which researchers
communicate directly to the reader the methods and results of their
study. They are reported in a wide variety of journals both
refereed/ peer reviewed and non-refereed.
The role of primary sources
1. They allow more informed judgment about the quality and
usefulness of the information
2. They tend not to be distorted through being summarized or reported
in another form
3. Provide sufficient detail about research studies
4. It is possible
reviewing to obtain
written complete objectivity in summarizing and
materials. 40
Steps to Review Related Literature

1. Locate existing reviews and other information in secondary sources

2. Identify key words
e.g. suppose your research problem is related the teaching styles
and
student achievement, key terms are teaching styles and student
achievement.
3. Identify the appropriate journal indexes and abstracts
4. Search indexes for primary sources
5. Summarize and analyze primary source information
6. Organize the review. (what to do about the materials foun d)
41
 How to search for primary and secondary sources for lit.
review
! The search for primary and secondary sources is made in one of three
ways
- By computer
- By mediated online search done by Librarian or library
- staff Manually

- Index: lists articles and research reports in certain specified 42

areas.
Criteria for evaluating the review of literature
! The review of literature should adequately cover previous research on
the topic. To satisfy this criteria questions that can be answered
include:
- were important studies ignored or included
- does the numbers of studies in the review reflect research
activities in the area
! The review should cite actual findings from other studies
! The review should be up-to-date.
! It should analyse as well as summarize previous studies.
! The review of literature should be organized logically by topic and not
by author
! The review
discuss of literature
in detail should briefly summarize minor studies and43
major studies.
 Criteria for Lit. Review Continued

! It should relate previous studies explicitly to the research problem or

methods
The questions that can be asked here are
- what is the implication of the review
- how can it be helpful and improve subsequent research
! It should provide a logical basis for the hypothesis
! The review of literature should help establish the significance of the
research.

44
 Writing the Review Chapter

! Content
! The review of literature should not be a series of quotes nor series of abstracts
! In the review studies that are particularly relevant should be described in
some detail
! Similar findings from different authors can often be grouped together and
briefly summarized. e.g. a number of studies have indicated that academic
achievement is highly related to socio economic background of the student
(Aboagye, 1998; Bansah, 1994; Ogoe, 1993).
! The review should be objective as possible
! The review should be made up of content that has been paraphrased
or summarized in the researchers own words.

45
 Parts of the literature report
! Introduction: this briefly describes the nature of the research
problem. The researcher explains the structure of the section as well.
! The body: this briefly reports what others have found about
the research problem. Related studies are usually discussed
together, grouped under sub-headings to make the review easier
to read.
! The summary: the summary of the review ties together main points
in the literature reviewed. It presents a composite picture of what is
known or taught to date.
! References: there is the need for full list of reference data for all
sources mentioned in the review. There are many formats that can
be used to list references, but the for mat used by American
Psychological Association (APA) is the accepted format for use.
46
! SECTION
TWO
! 2 . 4 Brief History of School Uniforms
! Kantheti, Devi and Anitha (2015) explained school uniform as a set
of standardized clothes worn primarily for an educational institution
and are common in primary and secondary schools in various
countries including Ghana. Brunsma (2004) recognised that there
exists no definitive history on school uniforms. He however,
provided an overview of instances that are used to trace the history of
school uniforms.
! Government and Non-governmental organisations particularly those
in the Sub-Saharan African countries recognising the importance of
school uniforms have tried to provide free uniforms (Evans, Kremer
& Ngatia, 2008) to reduce some burden of parents.

47
Putting similar ideas together
! Economically, school uniform is noted to help reduce economic and social
barriers between students as well as minimize parental stress (Kantheti et al.,
2015; The Irish School Wear Association, 2015).
! Inspection in reference to quality control in the apparel industry can be defined as the
visual examination of raw materials such as fabric, buttons and sewing threads used
for the production of apparel in relation to some standard specifications or
requirements (Glock & Kunz, 2005; Kadolph, 2007; Mehta & Bhardwaj, 1998).
! The quality and performance characteristics of fabrics for different end-uses include;
strength, elongation, weight, thickness, dimensional stability, colourfastness, fabric
weave, fibre content, yarn count, abrasion resistance, pilling resistance, drape,
wrinkle and crease recovery and bending properties (Behera, 2015; Chan et al.,
2006; Glock & Kunz, 2005; Kadolp, 2007; Masteikaitė et al., 2013; Mehta
&
! Bhardwaj, 1998; Pizzuto,
Various researches 2012).
have been undertaken to identify a range of fabrics suitability
be
to used for different end uses. Such researches include: identifying fabrics to be
used as uniforms for the military (Juodsnukyte, Gutauskas & Čepononiene, 2006;
Kovacevic, Schwarz & Durasevic, 2012), airline, departmental store, retail, bank
and government departments (Chan, et al., 2006) and schools (Adetuyi &
Akinbola, 2009; Masteikaitė, et al., 2013; Özdil, Boz, Ünal & Mengüc, 2014;
Ünal, et al., 2011).
48
! Citing three or more authors
! Kantheti, et al. (2015) noted that in response to growing levels of
violence in schools, parents, teachers and school officials believe that
school uniforms can help improve discipline,
! When a work has two authors, cite both names every time the
reference occurs in text. When a work has three, four or five authors,
cite all authors the first time the reference occurs; in subsequent citations,
include only the surname of the first author followed by et al. (not
italicized and with a period after al) and the year if it is the first citation
of the reference within a paragraph.
! Example:
Kisangau, Lyaruu, Hosea, and Joseph (2007) found [Use as first citation
in text.]
Kisangau et al. (2007) found [Use as subsequent first citation per paragraph
thereafter.]
! When a work has six or more authors, cite only the surname of the
first author followed by et al. (not italicized and with a period after al)
and the year for the first and subsequent citations.
49
! If two references with six or more authors shorten to the same form, cite the
surnames of the first authors and of as many of the subsequent authors as necessary to
distinguish the two references, followed by a comma and at al.
! For example, suppose you have entries for the following references:
Kosslyn, Koenig, Barrett, Cave, Tang, and Gabrieli (1996)
Kosslyn, Koenig, Gabrieli, Tang, Marsolek, and Daly (1996)
! In text you would cite them, respectively, as
Kosslyn, Koenig, Barrett, et al. (1996) and
Kosslyn, Koenig, Gabrieli, et al. (1996)
! Groups as Authors The names of groups that serve as authors (e.g., corporations,
associations, government agencies, and study groups) are usually spelled out each time
they appear in a text citation. The names of some group authors are spelled out in the first
citation and abbreviated thereafter. In deciding whether to abbreviate the name of a group
author, use the general rule that you need to give enough information in the text citation
for the reader to locate the entry in the reference list without difficulty. If the name is long
and cumbersome and if the abbreviation is familiar or readily understandable, you may
abbreviate the name in the second and subsequent citations. If the name is short or if the
abbreviation would not be readily understandable, write out the name each time it occurs
50
! Citing a research
finding
! The ISWA (2015) stated that a student in uniform who decides not
to attend school for example, may be easily identified thus helping
to curb truancy and attrition. In a research on “the relationship of
school uniforms to student attendance, achievement, and
discipline”, Sowell (2012) noted that the school with uniform had
significantly better attendance.
! Kessler (2003) found that among epidemiological samples
! In 2003, Kessler's study of epidemiological samples showed that

Use secondary sources sparingly, for instance, when the original work is out of
print, unavailable through usual sources, or not available in English. Give the
secondary source in the reference list; in text, name the original work and give a
citation for the secondary source. For example, if Aliport's work is cited in Nicholson
and you did not read Allport's work, list the Nicholson reference in the reference list.
following citation:
In the text, use the
Allport's diary (as cited in Nicholson, 2003). 51
Direct Quotation of Sources
! Word for word material directly quoted from another author's work or from your
own previously published work. When quoting, always provide the author, year; and
specific page citation or paragraph number for non-paginated material in the text and
include a complete reference in the reference list.
! If the quotation comprises fewer than 40 words, incorporate it into text and enclose
the quotation with double quotation marks. If the quotation appears in middle of a
sentence, end the passage with quotation marks, cite the source in parentheses
immediately after the quotation marks, and continue the sentence. Use no other
punctuation unless the meaning of the sentence requires such punctuation.
! Example: Interpreting these results, Robbins et al. (2003) suggested that the
"therapists in dropout cases may have inadvertently validated parental negativity about
the adolescent without adequately responding to the adolescent's needs or
concerns" (p. 541), contributing to an overall climate of negativity.

52
! If the quotation appears at the end of a sentence, close the quoted passage with quotation marks, cite
the source in parentheses immediately after the quotation marks, and end with a period or other
punctuation outside the final parenthesis.
! Example: Confusing this issue is the overlapping nature of roles in palliative care, whereby "medical
needs are met by those in the medical disciplines; nonmedical needs may be addressed by anyone on
the team" (Csikai & Chaitin, 2006, p. 112).
! If the quotation comprises 40 or more words, display it in a freestanding block of text and omit the
quotation marks. Start such a block quotation on a new line and indent the block about a half inch
from the left margin (in the same position as a new paragraph). Double-space the entire quotation. If
there are additional paragraphs within the quotation, indent the first line of each an additional half
inch. At the end of a block quotation, cite the quoted source and the page or paragraph number in
parentheses after the final punctuation mark.
! Example:
Others have contradicted this view:
Co-presence does not ensure intimate interaction among all group members. Consider large-scale
social gatherings in which hundreds or thousands of people gather in a location to perform a ritual or
celebrate an event.
In these instances, participants are able to see the visible manifestation of the group, the
physical gathering, yet their ability to make direct, intimate connections with those around them is
53
limited by the sheer magnitude of the assembly (Purcell, 1997, pp. 111-
112).
! Many electronic sources do not provide page numbers. If paragraph numbers are
visible, use them in place of page numbers. Use the abbreviation para.
! E x a m p le: Basu and Jones (2007) went so far as to suggest the need for a
new "intellectual framework in which to consider the nature and form of
regulation in cyberspace" (para. 4).
! If the document includes headings and neither paragraph nor page numbers are
visible, cite the heading and the number of the paragraph following it to direct the
reader to the location of the quoted material.
! E x a m p le: In their study, Verbunt, Pernot, and Smeets (2008) found that "the
level of perceived disability in patients with fibromyalgia seemed best explained by
their mental health condition and less by their physical condition" (Discussion section,
para. 1).
! NB: Direct quotations must be accurate, the quotation must follow the wording,
spelling, and interior punctuation of the original source.

54
What Makes a Successful Literature Review?
Here are eight steps toward completing a successful literature review.
1.Search terms: Formulate appropriate search terms as the basis for your literature
searches.

2.Database search tools: Use database search tools to identify relevant journal articles
and
related materials.

3.Key publications: Identify a series of key publications in your area and use these as
the
bases for citation reference searches.

4.Web search tools: Use web search tools to identify pieces of interest, in particular grey
literature, relevant to you.

5.
2.Scanning: Scan abstracts of articles, reviews of books, executive summaries of
government
reports, and other summaries of published work to determine if you need to read the
piece in
full.

3.Reading: Read the pieces you have identified and make notes from them.

4.Thematic organization: Use these notes as the basis of a thematic organization of your
literature review.

5.Writing the review: Write the review, based on the thematic organization, in such a way
that
you can construct one or more interesting research questions which you will address in
your investigation.
Designing the Research - Research Design
! Research design indicates the basic structure of a study, the nature of the
hypothesis and the variables involved in the study. The design thus indicates
whether there is an intervention and what the intervention is, the nature of any
comparisons to be made, the method to be used to control extraneous variables and
enhance the study’s interpretability, the timing and frequency of data collection, the
setting in which the data collection is to take place and the nature of
communications with subjects.
! It is the researchers overall plan for obtaining answers to the research questions
or for testing the research hypotheses.
! Research designs
include:
! The descriptive
research design
! Correlational design
57
! Case studies
 Research Design
The descriptive research design
Descriptive research is research which specifies the nature of a given phenomena. It
determines and reports the way things are. Descriptive research, thus involves
collecting data in order to test hypotheses or answer research questions concerning
the current status of the subject of the study.
Purpose
of Descriptive Research Design
The purpose of descriptive research is to observe, describe, and document aspects of a
situation as it naturally occurs. In descriptive research the events or conditions either
already exist or have occurred and the researcher merely selects the relevant variables
for an analysis of their relationships. Examples: 1. the perception of UCC students of
the accommodation system (in-out-out-out). 2. the attitude of home economics
teachers towards the introduction of new syllabus.
! In both examples, some conditions do exist and the researcher i s to observe
5 8

and report as it is.

 Research Design
Nature and characteristics of descriptive research design
! Generally descriptive research is concerned with the present status of a phenomenon.
! It is concerned with the conditions or relationships that exist, such as determining the nature
of prevailing conditions, practices and attitudes, opinions that are held; processes that are going
on; or trends that are developed.
! With descriptive research, accurate description of activities, objects, processes and persons is
the objective.
Characteristics
! It may be either quantitative or qualitative. Thus they may involve hypothesis formulation
and testing or formulation of questions and seeking answers to them or describing situations
! Variables and procedures are described as accurately and completely as possible so that the
study can be replicated by other researchers
! There is the need to organize and present data systematically in order to arrive at valid
and accurate conclusions.
! They use the logical methods of inductive (specific observation to more 5g9 eneral rules),
deductive (developing specific predictions from general principles) reasoning to arrive at
 Research Design
The descriptive research design
! Steps involved in a Descriptive Research Design
! Clear definition of problem or question to be answered
! The method of data collection should then be selected (alternative methods available
for collecting desired data in the descriptive research include administering
questionnaire, interviewing subjects, observing events or analysing documentary)
! Selection of sample for the study (A meaningful and representative sample should be
selected with regard to the population characteristics such as size, composition and also
with regard to data analysis procedures). For example, in most quantitative studies, a
sample size of 5% to 20% of the population size is sufficient for generalization
purposes.
! Data collection then follows
! Editing, coding and analysis of data using the relevant procedures. For example, one
can develop frequency and percentage tables, and compute mean and standard
deviations as well as test hypotheses using tools such as the t-test and60 chi-square.
solution to the problem has been found or not.)
! Interpretation of results (results of the analysis must then be interpreted to show whether a
 Research Design
Correlational research
! This type of research
design is concerned with establishing
interrelationships among variables. Example. To find out
whether an association exists between the number of years
spent in fulltime education and subsequent annual income.
! Correlation research attempts to investigate possible
relationships among variables without trying to influence
those variables.
! Correlational research describes the degree to which two
or more quantitative variables are related.
! Correlation does not necessarily establish cause and
effect relationship. 61
 Purpose of correlational studies
! To explain important human behaviours and characteristics in
quantitative terms and how they relate. For example, correlations
found between the rate of language acquisition and the type of
language of the child (i.e. first language and second language) had
taught researchers much about how language is acquired.

! Helps in prediction of events. If a relationship of sufficient magnitude

exist between two variables, it becomes possible to predict a
relationship on either variable if a score on the other variable is known.
Example, if it is found that a student’s grade at the BECE is highly
related to the grade of the SSSCE. Hence, BECE would be used to
predict SSSCE grades. With this, it can be predicted that a person who
has a high grade at BECE would be likely to have a high grade at the
SSSCE.
 Research Design- correlational
! The variable that is used to make the prediction is the
predictor variable.
! The variable about which the prediction is made is called the
criterion variable.
! In the example, the BECE grade would be the predictor
variable whiles the SSSCE grade is the criterion
variable/dependent variable.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
In correlational study, data analysis involves computing the
correlation coefficient between or among the variables of
interest.
When two variables are correlated, a correlation coefficient is
63

produced.
 Research Design - Case studies
! Investigation of an individual group, institution or other social unit. The
social unit may be a person, a family, a social group, a community. It involves
the observation of individual units. Eg. A student, a class or an entire group.
! e.g a study of a school that is noted for its successes in the BECE
examinations.
Data for case study may be derived from interviews,
!
documents and
observations
Types of case
• studies
Historical
• Observational
• Situational
• Clinical
 Research Design- Experimental Research
• An experiment is a scientific investigation in which the researcher manipulates one or more
independent variables, controls any other relevant variable and observes the effect of
the manipulation on the dependent variable (s)
•
An experimenter deliberately and systematically introduces changes and then observes
the consequences of those changes. Because the experiment involves control and
careful observation and measurements, this research method provides the most
convincing evidence of the effect one variable has on another.
•
It involves determining the causal relationship between two or more variables or
phenomena by direct manipulation of factors that influence the variables or
phenomena.
•
It also calls for control of other variables that can affect the outcome of the
manipulation.
•
The manipulated variable is called the experimental treatment or the independent
variable.
• The observed and measured variable is called the dependent variable. 65
 Experimental
Research
For example, if a researcher wants to determine whether the amount of time/
minutes applied in cooking Kontomire can lead to loss of nutrients in the
kontomire;
He/She will have to cook the kontomire at varying minutes eg. 5, 10, 15
minutes while there will be the control group that will not receive any treatment as
in cooking. He will then assess the nutrient level in each of the cooked kontomire
and compare his results. Based on that a conclusion can be made as to the required
time needed to cook Kontomire to maintain its nutrients.
Note: The researcher has to ensure that all other variables that are likely to
affect the dependent variable is kept away so that the conclusion reached will be
solely based on the independent variable.

The researcher has to control extraneous variables that are not related to
purpose of the study but may affect the dependent variable.
the 66
 Types of experimental designs
• Pre- experimental: it involves the use of one group. Do not have random assignment of
subjects to groups or other strategies to control extraneous variables. They provide
little or no control of extraneous variables. Eg. One-group Pretest-posttest design
• True experimental: use randomization and provide maximum control of
extraneous variables. Subjects are randomly assigned
to groups.
• Quasi- experimental: is used when the researcher cannot randomly assign
subjects to experimental treatments for a study.
Instead an already assembled groups such as classes
are used. This lacks randomization but employ
other strategies to provide some control over
extraneous variables. (partly but not fully true
experimental).
• Factorial design: when more than one independent variable is included i n
6 7
Example of the pre-experimental design
A JHS teacher wants to evaluate the effectiveness of a
new technique for teaching JHS 2 students social studies.
At the beginning of the school year, the students are
given a standardized test that appears to be a good
measure of the achievement of the objectives of JHS 2
social studies. The teacher then introduces the new teaching
technique and at the end of the year administers the
standardized test a second time, comparing scores from the
first and second tests in order to evaluate what difference
the exposure to the new teaching method has made.
68
Example of Quasi experimental research:
A researcher wanted to establish the effect of providing on-line
feedback to students immediately following quizzes and assignment
writing. Using two sections of research methods taught by same
lecturer the researcher selects one section (A) to receive on-line
feedback about students performance on test questions; the other
section (B) received the traditional type of feedback provided in the
classroom. The researcher then compares the two sections based on
students’ continuous assessment scores and the final grades they
received in the course.
• If test scores and the final grades are significantly higher in group A, the
section that received on-line feedback, the researcher could
tentatively conclude that there is evidence the on-line feedback
(treatment) contributed to increased learning. 69
Research Design- Survey
• Survey: is a research technique or design in which data are gathered by
asking questions of a group of individuals called respondents. It is a
technique which is usually used to collect data from large samples.
• Surveys may be classified according to focus and scope and according to time
dimension.
• Focus and scope: census: covers the entire population of interest and sample
survey: select a smaller portion, a sample of the population for the
study.
• Time dimension: longitudinal: gather information at different point in time in
order to study changes over extended periods of time. Cross-
sectional surveys: study a cross-section (sample) of a population at a
Research Design- Causal Comparative
–Causal comparative/ ex post facto: this is similar to experiment, but the researcher
does not manipulate the independent variable, which has already occurred
in the natural cause of events. The researcher then compares the group that
are differing on the independent variable to determine its effect o the
dependent variable.
–For example, to answer the question, Do first grade children from single- parent
homes have more difficulty in school than children from two-parent homes?
This would require the use of ex post facto design under the non-
experimental method. The experimenter could not manipulate the
backgrounds of children by making some one- parent families and the other
two-parent families but would rather identify children from one-parent
homes and compare their achievement with that of children from two-parent
homes.
–Despite the name Causal comparative, it does not establish causal
 Variables in Research
! What is a variable?
! A variable is a concept or characteristics that contains variations. The variations can
be described numerically or categorically.
! A variable is a characteristic or term that can take on different values or have categories
! Examples of variables in Education include:
! Achievement/performance
! Intelligence
! Aptitude
! Behaviour (these can take on different values)
! Variables such as
Gender 72
leadership style (are better described
Method of instruction
 Types of
! variables
The variables include:
! Independent and dependent
variables
! Extraneous/confounding variables
! Categorical and continuous Independent Variables
Is that characteristic or activity believed to make a difference in another variable, the dependent variable. It
variables
is also known as experimental or treatment variable. In experimental research, the independent variable is
the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter. It is the variable in whose effect the researcher is
interested.
Examples of independent variables in educational research include: method of instruction, type
of reinforcement, frequency of reinforcement, type of learning materials, size of learning group
etc.
Dependent Variable
This is the variable on which the influence of the independent variable is measured.
It is referred to as the dependent variable because changes that may occur in that variable is dependent on
the independent variable. Examples of dependent variables in education include achievement, performance,
attitude, aptitude and behaviour.
Independent variables are antecedent to dependent variables and are known73or hypothesized to
influence the dependent variable.
NB: these terms are best applicable in experimental and ex post facto studies.
Types of variables
Extraneous/Confounding Variables
Extraneous variable is a variable that is not related to the purpose of the study but may
affect the dependent variable. A confounding variable is a type of extraneous variable that
affects the outcome of the independent variable systematically.
NB: Extraneous variables must be identified in an experimental study and controlled.
Categorical Variables
Categorical variables assign a person or an object to a group using specific characteristics
or properties. When researchers classify subjects by sorting them into groups, the attribute
on which they base the classification is termed a categorical variable. They can be said to
be group variables. Some categorical variables are dichotomous that is they have only two
mutually exclusive classes and they are termed as dichotomous variables. Examples are
gender – male/female, pass/fail etc. some categorical variables however, have more than
two classes such as educational level, religious affiliation and place of birth.
Continuous Variables
These are variables that take infinite number of values within a giv7e4 n range of scores.
They can take on any value. Examples are; weight, age, height and achievement scores
 Population
! Population: all members of any well defined class of people, events, or objects. e.g. in a
study where Ghanaian adolescents constitute the population of interest, you could
define this population as all Ghanaian boys and girls within the age range of 12-21.
! Accessible population: is the aggregate of cases that conform to the designated criteria that
are accessible to the researcher as a pool of subjects for a study.
! Target population: is the aggregate of cases about which the researcher would like to
make generalizations. Example: a target population may be all teachers in basic schools in
a region, however, the accessible population may be teachers in basic schools of a
particular education district.
! Researchers usually sample from an accessible population and hope to generalize to a
target population.

75
 Population
! Population: all members of any well defined class of people, events, or objects.
All university students in Ghana.
Sampling
The first step in sampling is the identification of the target population to
be presented in the study.
! Target population: is the aggregate of cases about which the researcher would
like to make generalizations. Example: in a study on the attitudes and values of
Ghanaian adolescents, the target population would be all Ghanaian boys and girls
within the age range of 12-18, given that adolescent is operationally defined as
the period between ages 12 and 18.
! However, because it is usually not possible to deal with the whole target
population, you must identify that portion of the population to which you can
have access called the accessible population and it is from this 76
group that
will take the sample for the
you
 Population/Sample
! Accessible population: is the aggregate of cases that conform to the
designated criteria that are accessible to the researcher as a pool of
subjects for a study. E.g. in the case of the example on the attitude
and values of Ghanaian adolescents, a researcher may decide to use
adolescents in the central region of Ghana as the accessible
population.
! Researchers usually sample from an accessible population and hope to
generalize to a target population.

Target Accessible population Sample

population
Findings

77
 Samples and Sampling
! Sampling refers to the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire
population.
! A sample consists of a carefully selected subset of the units that comprise the population. The portion
of the population that the researcher gathers information from or on.
Principles of Sampling
Since the sample selected should be representative of the population, samples are chosen by means of
sound methodological principles. In terms of quantitative research, the following are identified as most
impoertant.
1. Sample units must be chosen in a systematic and objective manner
2. Sample units must be easily identifiable and clearly defined
3. Sample units must be independent to each other, uniform and of the same size and should appear only
in the population.
4. The sample selection should be based on sound criteria and should avoid errors, bias and distortions.
5. The sample must be as representative as possible to allow for generalization of findings to the
population.
78
 Reasons for sampling
! In many cases a complete coverage of the population is
not possible
! Studies based on samples require less time and produce
quick answers
! Sampling is less demanding in terms of labour requirement, since
it requires a small portion of the target population
! It is taught to be more economical, since it contains fewer
people and requires less printed material, fewer general costs,
and fewer experts
! Samples are thought to offer more detailed information and a high
degree of accuracy because they deal with relativel y small
7 9

numbers of units.
 Sampling
There are various procedures that the researcher can use to select his/her sample.
The procedure that may be used may be guided by the following:
1. The structure of the population of study
2. The distribution of certain characteristics within the population
3. Other relevant factors available or present in the population that may threaten
the validity of the study.
Sampling procedures are grouped into two categories namely: Probability
sampling and Non-probability sampling
1. Probability sampling: which involves random selection in choosing the
elements in such a way that the researcher knows the probability of selecting
each member of the population. It employs strict probability rules in the
selection process. Elements are drawn by chance procedures. There is a possible
inclusion of each population element. That is every member of the accessible
population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample 80
 Sampling
1. Probability sampling: the four types most frequently used in
educational research are:
!
simple random sampling
!
stratified sampling
!
cluster sampling
!
systematic sampling
Si
This is noted to be the bestmknown of the probability sampling procedures.
It gives all units of the population
pl an equal chance of being selected. The
steps in simple random sampling comprise the following:
e
! Define the population R
! List all members of theapopulation
n
! Select the sample by employing a procedure where sheer chance
determines which membersd on the list are drawn for the sample.
Two main procedures are ousually used here. Which are the lottery
and the random number m
method method. 81

S
 Sampling
The lottery method
The procedure for the lottery method
! Identify or construct a sampling frame. This involves preparing a list of
the units of the target population, that is the list of all elements in the
population. Such frames could be class register, electoral register in the
area. Students records, names in an alphabetical order and numbered
accordingly.
! Write names listed in the sample frame or their numbers on slips of
paper and put them in a container.
! Mix well and remove one slip or paper at a time from the container
without looking into it
! Register or record the number or name on the slip. When a slip is
recorded it thrown back into the container. Continue the process till the
required number of respondents or participants are recorded.
82
 Sampling
Random number method
The procedure for the random number method
! Identify or construct a sampling frame. This involves preparing a list of
the units of the target population, that is the list of all elements in the
population.
! Appropriate tables of random numbers are then prepared and used for
the selection.
The simple random sampling procedure is appropriate when the
population of study is similar in characteristics of interest.
Stratified Sampling
This is used when the population consists of a number of subgroups, or
strata, that may differ in the characteristics being studied. E.g. if a
researcher wants to conduct a poll designed to assess opinions on a certain
political issue, it might be advisable to subdivide the population into
subgroups on the basis of age or occupation, because you would expect
opinions to differ systemically among various age or occupational groups.
83
 Sampling
Stratified sampling
The procedure
! First identify the strata of interest
! Randomly draw a specified number of subjects from each stratum
e.g. the basis for stratification may be geographic, occupation, income
levels, year in college, teaching level etc. e.g you may want to study
adolescents attitude towards an issue based on the size of towns in which
they reside. This can provide for stratification.
An advantage of stratified sampling is that it enables the researcher to
study the differences that might exist between various subgroups of a
population. In this type of situation, a researcher may select equal numbers
from each stratum or select in proportion to the size of the stratum in the
population. The latter procedure is known as proportional stratifies
sampling. If your emphasis is on the types of differences among the strata,
you select equal numbers of cases from each stratum. However if the
characteristics of the entire population are your main concern, proportional
sampling is more appropriate. 84
 Sampling
Cluster Sampling
This is a type of probability sampling where a researcher studies subjects from
a naturally occurring groups or clusters. For example, a researcher might choose
a number of schools randomly from a list schools and then include all the students
in those schools in the sample. This kind of probability sampling is called
cluster sampling because the unit chosen is not an individual but a group of
individuals who are naturally together. Example the use of intact classrooms as
clusters. It is essential that clusters actually included in your study be chosen at
random from a population of clusters.
Example: lets say a public opinion poll is being conducted in cape coast.
The researcher may not probably have access to the list of the entire adult population;
thus it would be impossible to draw a simple random sample. A more feasible
method would be to randomly sample some houses from a city map and use all adults
living in the selected houses. Each house then represents a cluster of subjects or
elements for the study.
NB: this method is usually used when the population is large and
widely dispersed and also impossible to obtain listing of all the
elements in the population.
85
 Sampling
Systematic Sampling
This procedure involves drawing a sample by taking every Kth case from a list of
the population.
! First you decide how many subjects you want in the sample (n). Since you know the
total number of members in the population (N), you simply divide N by n and
determine the sampling interval (K) to apply to the list.
! Select the first member randomly from the first K members of the list and then select
every Kth member of the population for the sample.
For example: lets say a total population of 500 subjects and a desired sample size of
50: N = 500 an n =50
K= 500/50=10 therefore K= 10.
From here you start near the top of the list so that the first case can be randomly selected
from the first ten cases and then select every tenth case thereafter. Suppose the third
name or number on the list was the first selected, you would then add the sampling
interval or 10 to 3 and thus the 13th person falls in the sample as does the 23rd and so on.
You continue adding the sampling interval until you reach the end of the list.
NB: Once the first case is chosen, all subsequent cases to be included in the sample are
automatically determined and that is what makes it different from simple random.
Note that: the various types of probability sampling that have been discus8s6ed are
not mutually exclusive.
 Non-probability Sampling
In many research situations, the enumeration of the population element, a basic requirement
in probability sampling is difficult, if not impossible. In these instances the researcher may
use nonprobability sampling, which involves nonrandom procedures for selecting the
members of the sample. The major forms of nonprobability sampling are:
! Accidental sampling
! Purposive sampling -----Snowball or chain sampling
! Quota sampling
Accidental Sampling
Involves using available cases for a study. It is done by interviewing the first individuals
you encounter e. g. on campus, using the students in your own classroom as a sample are
various examples of accidental sampling. It is also known as convenience, chunk,
haphazard and grab sampling.
Purposive Sampling
This is also referred to as judgmental sampling. Elements are sampled based on the
researchers judgment. Sample elements judged to be typical or representative are chosen from
the population. The researcher purposely chooses subjects who in their opinion are thought to
be relevant to the research topic. 87
Snowball sampling: a variation of purposive sampling: in this type is used when the initially selected subjects
suggest the names of others who would be appropriate for the sample. The latter might suggest others and so on.
Such sampling occurs when potential respondents are not centrally located but scattered in different sites.
- lack of sampling frame makes it impossible to achieve probability sample
- the target population is unknown
- it is difficult to approach the respondents in any other way.
Quota Sampling
It is described as the non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. The researcher sets the quota of
respondents to be chosen from specific population groups by defining the basis of choice (gender, marital
status, ethnicity, education etc.) and then determines its size (e.g. 60 parents, 40 policemen, 60 basic school
teachers). The selection of the elements is then carried out by the researcher.
Steps in quota Sampling
1. Determine a number of variables, strongly related to the question under investigation, to be used as bases for
stratification. Variables such as gender, age, education and social class are frequently used.
2. Determine the size of each segment of the population by using census or other available data.
3. Compute quotas for each segment of the population that are proportional to the size of each segment.
4. Select typical cases from each segment, or stratum of the population to fill the quotas.
88
Data Collection Techniques
! Observation - Participant and non-
participant
! Structured and unstructured
! Natural and laboratory
! Open and hidden
Read on the characteristics of good observation,
advantages and limitations of observations.
 Data Collection Techniques- use of questionnaire
! Questionnaire: The use of questionnaire is very common in the conduct of research. In
most cases questionnaires are employed as the only method of data collection. It consists
of a list of questions or statements relating to the aims of the study, the hypotheses and
research questions to be verified and answers, to which the respondents are required to
answer by writing.
! Forms of questionnaire: Close ended and open ended
Close ended: questionnaire that call for short, check-mark (list) responses are called
restricted, structured or close ended type. Here you mark a yes or no, rank alternatives
provided based on how one feels about the issue, check an item from a list of suggested
responses or scale responses.
E.g. How would you rate the adequacy of textbooks in your school library
1. Excellent
2. Good
3. Fair
4. Poor
5. Other please specify
Data Collection Techniques- questionnaire
! Open ended: the open form question or the unstructured or
unrestricted question calls for a free response in the respondents’ own
words. This type generally provides for greater depth of response.
g. What is the textbook situation in your school library?
NOTE: Many questionnaires include both open and close-ended type items.
Rules for questionnaire construction
1. Questions must be well presented in the
questionnaire to make it easy to read and easy to
follow
2. Sufficient space should be provided between the items
3. Clear instructions regarding the the way of answering the
questions must be given. e. g. The respondents may be asked to
 Rules for questionnaire construction cont’d.

Content of the questions

! Every question must be relevant to one or more aspects of the study
! Ambiguous, non-specific and hypothetical questions are to be
avoided
! Embarrassing, personal or threatening questions should be avoided
! Academic jargons should be avoided, use simple language devoid
of slang or complicated expressions.
! It should have a professional appearance and should give the
impression of a document that deserves respect and invoke feelings
of responsibility
! Sufficient instructions should be provided where necessary.
 Questionnaire Administration
This involves sending or presenting the questionnaire to the prospective respondents and following it
up. This can be done through/by
! Mail- mail questionnaire sent by post
! Electronic mails
! Personally delivered to the respondents- non mail questionnaire.
-With the mailing method, the success of the administration depends on the existence of an efficient
postal system
-the questionnaire is filled in the absence of the researcher, this means all respondents should be
able to read and write and understand every detail on the it
-since the researcher is not present, responses will not be influenced by the presence of the
researcher.
-difficult to obtain a high return rate.
With non-mailing system
- is sent personally to the respondents
-may be filled in the presence of the researcher or the assistants, explanations of issues is possible
here
-non responses can be controlled to some extent by the researcher making appointment with the
Advantages and Disadvantages of questionnaire
! Economy: less expensive than other methods, observation and interviews. Can be sent through
mail but observation cannot be done that way. Training of interviewers and observers will not
be needed with the use of questionnaire.
! Reachability: gives a wider coverage of respondents
! Uniformity in questions
! Can be completed at the respondents convenience
! They offer greater assurance of anonymity
Disadvantages/Limitations
Limitation to literate population
Motivation of the respondents: the use of questionnaire does not offer opportunities for
motivating the respondent to participate in the survey or to answer the questions
Sampling: non responses associated with questionnaire is likely to affect the representativeness
of the sample. It may result in a biased final sample
Lack of opportunity to collect additional information through observation, probing, clarification
of issues among others.
Data Collection Techniques-
Interviewing
An interview is a form of questioning characterised by the the fact that it employs
verbal questioning as its principal technique of information gathering. It involves
posing questions to respondents for answers in a face- to-face situation or
by phone.
Types of interviews
Structured: interviews in which the specific questions to be asked and the order of
the questions are predetermined and set by the researcher. They are based on a
strict procedure and a highly structured interview guide. The instrument of pre-
determined questions is known as an interview schedule.the interview is based on
this schedule and strict adherence to the questions and the instructions is
paramount.
Unstructured:has no strict procedures to follow. The interviewers have the
discretion to form questions on the spot, probe into issues and in some cases
follow the order dictated by the situation. In this form the instrument used is
interview guide. The guide is not as detailed as the schedule, it merely outlines
 Types of interviews cont’d.

Individual: interviewing one participant at a time

Group: in small scale 2 people are interviewed
concurrently and on a large scale a group of 20
persons might be interviewed. Example, a husband
and a wife may be interviewed together on a small
scale and a class of students might be interviewed
together on a large scale.
Skills and Qualities of Interviewers
Knowledgeable
The researcher must be knowledgeable on the topic/theme he/she is working
on. Why is this so? This will enable the interviewer to pursue relevant issues.
Structuring
An interviewer should be able to structure the interview – introduction, process and
closing. He/she should be able to give an introduction that will capture the attention of
the interviewees. In the process of the interview he/she should be lively and not
boring in order to sustain the interview throughout the session.
Clear
The interviewer should pose clear, simple, short and straightforward questions.
He/she should be able to speak distinctly and understandably and avoid academic
and professional jargons
Skills and Qualities of Interviewers cont’d.
Gentle
Allows subjects to complete what they are saying and tolerate pauses
and accept unconventional and provocative opinions.
Sensitive
Listen attentively to the content of what is said. Be empathetic, if
need be.
Steering
The interviewer should control the course of the interview and
should not be afraid of interrupting digressions from the interviewee.
Skills and Qualities of Interviewers cont’d.
Open
Approach the interview with an open mind. Must be open to others’
opinions. Accept whatever opinions an interviewee expresses on an issue.
Critical
Does not take everything that is said at the face value but questions critically to test
the reliability and validity of what the interviewees tell.
Remembering
The interviewer should be able to retain and recall what interviewees tell and must
be able to relate them.
Interpreting
An interviewer must throughout the interview session try to clarify and extend the
meaning of the statements made by the interviewee for confirmation or
Recording the Responses
The answers to questions asked during the
interview can be secured against the time the results
will be analysed in three modes/ways namely

a.by making a mental note of the answers

b.by making a written record of the answers
c.by making a tape or video recording of the
interview
Advantages and Limitations of Interviewing
The popularity of interview is often justified in terms of several of its qualities which
give it an advantage over other methods of data collection. The advantages of
interviewing include the following:
Flexibility – interviews can be adjusted to meet many diverse situations.
High response rate – interviewing attracts a relatively high response rate.
Easy administration – interviews do not require participants to have the ability
to read.
Opportunity to observe non-verbal behaviour – such as opportunities are obviously
not available when questionnaires are used.
Capacity for correcting misunderstanding by respondents. More complex questions
can be used because the presence of the interviewer can assist in correcting a
misunderstanding as well as assisting in answering the questions.
Limitations of
Interviews
Despite its advantages, interviewing is limited by number of factors. The following are
the most important:
Interviews are more costly and time consuming than other methods such
as questionnaires.
They are attacked for the “interviewer factor” and the possible bias associated
with it.
They are more inconvenient than other methods such as using questionnaires.
It is less effective than other methods when sensitive issues are discussed. For
example, some people prefer to write about sensitive issues than to talk
about them.
It offers less anonymity than other methods since the interviewer knows the
identity, residence, type of housing, etc.
 Data Collection Techniques- Focus Groups

A focus group interview is a group interview

involving a small number of demographically similar
people or participants who have other common
traits/ experiences. Their reactions to specific
researcher posed questions are studied.
Preparation and Organization of Data
From the earlier slides, it is clear that you can use several tools to
collect data for your project work or research. You may use a
questionnaire, an interview guide or observation guide or schedule.
The data collected in a study must be prepared before it is analysed.
Data preparation involves editing, scoring, coding and entering the
data into the computer, if a computer will be used to analyse the data.
Even if the data will be analysed manually, it must be prepared
before it is analysed. With the use of computers data analysis
softwares such as Statistical Package and Service Solution (SPSS)
can be employed.
 DATA ANALYSIS
In the previous section, we explained the process of preparing and
organising data before analysing it. After preparing the data
and keying in the data. The data then has to be analysed.
Descriptive statistics of the data collected can be computed.
Such as means, frequencies, percentages among others.
Unit 4: Writing Research
Proposal
 The research Plan (Proposal)
• Research is a systematic investigation to increase knowledge and/ or
understanding of a phenomenon.
• Research is a purposeful activity and therefore requires a plan
• A research proposal is a written plan for conducting a research study.
It details how a research is going to be carried out.
• As indicated by some authors, the development of a research plan is a
critical step in conducting research. The important point is that for
a meaningful research, there must be a plan so that the researcher
can proceed purposefully.

107
 Importance of Research Proposal

• Makes the researcher think through every aspect of the study

including identifying resources needed for the study
• Communicates the intension of the researcher to others
• Serves as a guide for conducting the study
• Saves time
• Reduces the probability of making avoidable mistakes
• Results in higher quality of research
• Facilitates the evaluation of the proposed study by others

108
 Components of a research proposal
• A research proposal document may have the following sub-headings:
– Introduction/background to the study
– Statement of the problem
– Purpose of the study
– Research/hypotheses
– Significance of the study
– Delimitations
– Limitations
– Preliminary definition of terms
– Methodology (explains how the study will be conducted)
• Research design (Describe the type of study and design e.g. survey, experimental, explain rationale for the design)
• Population and sampling (Define/description of population, sample size determination and how sample will be
selected, give rationale for the selection procedure and sample size)
• Instruments (describe how instruments will be developed)
• Data collection procedures (Describe how data will be collected step by step, indicate when data will be collected and
how long it will take, indicate who will collect the data)
• Data analysis (Describe the scales of measurement to be used, indicate the statistical tool to be used for each
hypothesis/research question/objective)
• Ethical considerations
– Time schedule and budget
109
– References
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
This is a brief introduction which presents background information about the problem area.
Depending on the topic, this may take the form of a discussion concerning an important issue or
theory in the field, or a description of the history, setting, programmes, or situation leading up
to the specific problem.
•Note: the information provided here will require a review of literature of work related to the study. The
review would provide a summary of related findings and the methods of the study used. The
review would help in identifying how the reviewed information relates to the study to be
conducted and the gaps that need to be filled.

Statement of the Problem

This is a clear statement of the specific problem to be investigated. Together with the
background statement, this section should make it clear to the reader why this particular
problem is important and outline the basic rationale on which the study rests.
110
 Stating the problem

! Once you have chosen the general subject area or problem area, the
researcher then narrows it down to a specific statement of the research
problem. The statement should identify the key study variables and
their possible interrelationships and the nature of the population of
interest.
CRITERIA FOR RESEARCH PROBLEM STATEMENT
✓ It should clarify exactly what is to be investigated. Should be stated
in a question or statement form.
✓ The problem must be stated in a way that research into the
question or problem is possible. So that one can collect data to
111
answer the question.
 Task
! Select 5 project works in your area of study and critique the
research problem and the statement of the problem based on the
criteria we have discussed.
- Both for good research problems and
problem statements
- Indicate whether the problem was stated in the
question or statement form.

112
 Purpose of the Study
This is the general statement giving the major purpose of the
study.
Research Questions/ Hypotheses
Depending on the purpose of the study, one may use objectives
or hypotheses or both. After stating the major purpose of the
study, the specific objectives or specific areas to be investigated
to addressthe aim are listed. Hypotheses may be stated instead or
both objectives and hypotheses could be stated.

113
 HYPOTHESIS/RESEARCH QUESTIONS

! In research, investigators often make educated guesses

about a correct solution to a problem in the form of
possibl relationships or differences.
! The guesses are stated in the form of hypotheses or
researc questions.

114
 Hypotheses
! What is a hypothesis?
! a hypothesis is a tentative statement of the expected relationship
or differences between two or more variables.
! It is a tentative explanation for certain behaviours, phenomena or
events that have occurred or will occur as part of solving the problem.
! It states what the researcher thinks the outcome of the study will
be (Predicted Results).
! It is a conjectural explanation of phenomena that is accepted or
rejected by empirical evidence.
! Problem statement and research hypotheses are similar in substance,
except that research hypotheses are declarative statements, more specific
than problem statements, clearly testable and indicative 115of the expected
results.
! E.g. Research problem
! Is there a relationship between review and retention?
Hypothesis might be;
- There is a positive relationship between review and retention

Other examples of hypotheses

- Democratic leadership style produces greater faculty satisfaction than
authoritarian leadership style.
- Low reading students in a remedial reading course will achieve
higher reading comprehension than comparable students in an
English literature course. 116
 Importance of Hypotheses

! It provides focus for the study

! It helps the researcher to confirm or disconfirm a theory and help
advance knowledge.
! The research hypothesis often provides clear framework and guide
when designing the data collection instruments and when collecting,
organizing, analysing and interpreting the data.
! Helps the researcher to know exactly what to do.

117
 Types of hypotheses

1. Classification in terms of whether they are derived from

inductive or deductive logic and
2. Whether the hypotheses is stated as a research or
statistical hypothesis (declarative versus null hypothesis)

Classification based on
- Inductive hypothesis: generalization
1 based on observation
- Deductive hypothesis: general to specific

118
 Classification Based on 2

! Research hypothesis
also referred to as substantive, working, declarative or scientific hypothesis, are statements of
expected relationship between variables. It states an expected relationship or difference
between two variables. In other words, it states what relationship the researcher expects to
verify through the collection and analysis of data. It is, thus, a declarative statement of results
the investigator expects to find.
Examples of research hypothesis
- There is statistically significant difference between the weights of Infants born to drug
addicted mothers and infants with non-addicted mothers.
-There is statistically significant difference in reading comprehension of primary school
children who participate in cooperative learning activity than those who receive regular
instructions only.
119
! A research hypothesis may be stated in a directional or non-directional
form is a directional hypothesis?
What
- Directional hypothesis specifies the direction of the predicted
relationship or difference
Examples of directional hypothesis
- lower primary pupils who are given concrete teaching aid/materials in mathematics
lessons would demonstrate higher achievement than pupils who are taught without teaching
aids
- newly trained teachers tend to be more approving of
the teachers expanding role than older teachers.
- there is a positive correlation between time spent
on task/activities and how well the task is
performed. 120
! What is a non-directional hypothesis?
- this states that a relationship or difference exist without
specifying the direction or nature of the expected finding.

Examples of non-directional hypothesis

-there is a relationship between IQ and Anxiety in children
-there will be a difference in achievement when individually tutored children
are compared to those who received group tutoring.

121
! Statistical hypothesis/ Null Hypothesis
- is a statement of a relationship or difference that can be tested
statistically. Some authors indicate that statistical hypotheses are
translations of research hypotheses. It allows the researcher to rephrase the
research hypothesis in such a way that we can apply statistical procedures
to them.
! Statistical hypotheses are usually stated in what is called the “null
form”,
! The statistical hypothesis is also known as the null hypothesis.
What is null hypothesis?
A null hypothesis states there is no relationship (or difference)
provides variables.
between support or no support for the research hypothesis.122
! Symbols used for
hypotheses
! -Research hypothesis = H, H1, H2

! - null hypothesis =
Ho,Ho1,Ho2

123
 Characteristics of Good Research Hypotheses
! The research hypothesis should be stated in a declarative form and
not in a question form.
! Should be empirically testable and within reasonable period of
time
! Should follow from the research problem
! Should state the expected relationship between two or more
variables
! Should be clear
! Should be consicise

124
 Research questions
! Research questions may be descriptive questions, relationship
questions or difference questions. Each type of question implies a
different design.
Type of Logic Illustrative
Question Design
Descriptive What is Survey,
Descriptive
Relationship Does x variable Correlational
relate to y
variable?

Does x variable
predict y variable

Difference Is there a 125

Experimental, ex
difference post facto
between variable
x and y
Significance of the Study
State the theoretical or practical contributions of the study to the field
it belongs to.
Delimitation
This is about the scope of the study
Limitations
Preliminary definitions of terms (if
any) LITERATURE REVIEW
If the study will be based on a theory or a model, an outline of the
theory must be provided. The relationship between the present study and
the theory should be clearly indicated (e.g. hypotheses should emerge
logically from the theory).
METHODOLOGY
This section gives an outline of the research design selected in order to meet the objectives or test
the hypotheses. Basically, it explains how the study will be conducted. It includes the following:
Research Design
There should be clear statement of the type of study design selected: such as a survey, cross-
sectional survey, longitudinal study, laboratory experimental procedure or observational
study among others. Explain the rationale for the design.
Population
Definition/description of population. This looks at the group the researcher is interested in. That
is the group that the researcher is interested in gaining information and drawing conclusions. E.g.
all teachers, all senior high school students etc.
Sample and Sampling Procedure
A clear statement of the study sample size and the procedure for the selection must be given.
In many cases a complete coverage of the population in a study is not possible. This is where
the researcher will select a unit of population to represent the whole. Sampling refers to the
process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population. The
rationale for the selection procedure used and the sample size must be indicated.127
Instruments for data collection
Indicate the instrument(s) to be used for data collection. Provide description of the
instrument(s).
Pre-Test
Relevance of pre- testing instruments for data collection and where or how it would be
done must be explained.
Data Collection Procedure
The manner in which the data will be collected must be stated. For example, if the study
is a community survey, indicate how first person would be contacted and the procedure
to be followed to reach the rest. How data would be collected should be described step
by step. Indicate when data would be collected and how long it would take. Indicate the
individual that will collect the data.
Data Analysis and Presentation
Outline the analysis procedures, including statistics to be used in meeting the objectives
or testing the hypotheses. Indicate the statistical tools to be used for each hypothesis/
research questions/objectives. 128
Ethical Considerations In Research
Ethical concerns may emerge at all stages of research. It is essential that ethical issues are
addressed at the planning stage of a study and that ethical guidelines are adhered to.
! The rights of privacy of individuals
! Voluntary nature of participation and the right of individuals to withdraw partially
or completely from the process
! Consent of participants
! Maintenance of the confidentiality of data provided by individuals or identifiable
and their anonymity
participants
! Reactions of participants to the ways in which researchers seek to collect data
! Effects on participants of the way in which data is analyzed and reported.
! Objectivity of the researcher
! Avoid plagiarism

129
 Ethical Considerations In Research
1. Misleading people
2. Publishing of results: the publication of research findings may prove damaging,
embarrassing or offensive to the people involved. Bear in mind the possible
consequences of the publication of findings. Wherever possible, the researcher will
want to discuss the issues emerging from the research directly with those touched by
it before it is made public.
3.confidentiality: this is an important issue to consider in research. Sensitive information
disclosed may have to be protected from the public domain. The nature of some projects
may example require access to sensitive information about a company’s business. In such
instances, the researcher may be asked to sign a formal confidentiality agreement. If a
project contains confidential information, the company may ask the researcher to keep the
report confidential. Eg. Competitor information
130
 Ethical Considerations In Research
Things to do
! Potential participants/respondents should be provided with information about the study
in writing and in person
! The participants/ respondents should be asked to read and sign consent forms.

! Every effort should be made to keep participation anonymous

! Confidentiality must be maintained at all times.
! Allow participants/respondents to ask questions if they want to and they should be allowed
to withdraw if they wish to.
! Participants/respondents should be informed of the individuals who will have access to
the information you are picking from them. This even helps with the development of trust.
! Provide feedback of results to participants.
! Make sure that you acknowledge the authors of all publications you used to write your
work. Failure to do so will be considered as plagiarism. Do not copy word for word what an
author
an hasmake
author said.sure
Analyse
to usewhat the author
quotation markshas
andwritten
cite theand re-write 131
source. it in your own words. If
you quote
 Ethical Considerations In Research

Checklist for ethics in Research

! Will the research process harm participants or those whom
information is gathered?
! Are the findings likely to cause harm to others not involved in the
research?
! Are you violating accepted research practice in conducting the research
and data analysis and drawing conclusions?
! Are you violating community or professional standards of conduct?
! Have you acknowledged the authors of all publications you used to
write?

Is your proposed research is likely to cause any ethical

difficulties?
Advise should be sought from ethical committees. 132
REFERENCES
References of works used in the development of the proposal
must be listed in alphabetical order of the authors’ names.

133
 Evaluation of a research proposal
• It is important to evaluate your proposal before submitting it to your
supervisor for consideration.
–The proposal can be reviewed several days after you had written it.
–You can give it to a colleague or an expert to review
–This can help you to benefit from the insights of others in terms of
improving the proposal before submitting it to your supervisor
–Another way of evaluating the proposal involves a mini study. In this case,
the entire study is conducted in a miniature form. Weaknesses
discovered during the pilot study are corrected in the proposal.
The proposal must be written in the future tense and a complete
proposal should provide references.
Sample proposal 134
UNIT 5: Writing the research report
 The Research Report
• When all the hard work of gathering and analysing data is complete you
need to write the final report. A study is not complete until it is
written up.
• The report is the document that tells others, apart from the researcher
all that was done and its outcome. It is therefore important to
communicate the report in the most effective way possible.
• The report writing needs to be planed by doing the following
– Set deadlines
– Write regularly
– Write up a section of the report as soon as it ready (write the
report as you go along when possible) 136
 General writing skills
• Ensure the use of appropriate terms and concepts
• Check the sentence structure
• Ensure to apply accuracy and clarity in your writing
• Emphasis should be on the data rather than the
investigator
• Generally a research report is written in the
past tense
• Avoid one sentence paragraph in the report
• Be logical in your presentation
• Spelling, punctuations, and numbers must be
 Structure of a project report
• The entire research report has three major parts
–The preliminary section
–The main body of the report
–The reference materials
NB: Each of these major parts contain sub-sections.

The essential elements of the preliminary part of a project report are:

–The title page
–The declaration
–The abstract
–Acknowledgement
–The table of contents
–List of Tables and Figures
138
sample
 Structure of a project report
The essential elements of the preliminary part of a project report are:
–The title page (outside and inside covers): this provides the title of the study plus other relevant
information. It has the following information all written in capital (Block) letters:
• The title of the study which should be concise and clear as possible.
• Full name of the student(s) (e.g. Efua Mensah)
• Name of the department/faculty and the institution to which the project is being submitted
as well as the degree for which the project is being presented.
• The month and year when the degree is to be conferred (e.g. JUNE 2004)
–The declaration: this is concerned with the authenticity of the study and is signed by the student(s)
and the supervisor(s) of the research/project.
–The abstract provides a concise description of the study usually not more than a page. It is
basically a brief summary of the study. It looks at the purpose of the study, the
population, the sample used and the sampling procedures, the instruments used to collect
data, how data were analysed. It also indicates the results of the study and the conclusion
drawn and provides some recommendations.
–Acknowledgement
139
 Structure of a project report
• The main body of the report come immediately after the
preliminary materials. Generally it consists of five chapters. They
are:
– The introduction
– Review of related literature
– The methodology
– Results and discussion
– Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

The reference materials are in two

parts
– The references 140
UNIT 6: Referencing and citation
 Referencing
• Referencing materials are the list of sources cited in the report and the appendices.
They are important parts of any report and must be carefully handled to
provide the needed information to support the main body of the report.
• The use of references is recommended and not bibliography

• The APA style of referencing is what should be used

• The heading is REFERENCES

• The references should be arranged alphabetically using the last names
• (surnames) of the authors and their initials.
Every source cited in the report must be included in the references list. The
sources cited in the report and the listed sources in the references list must
• correspond exactly
To make the author’s name stand out, entries that occupy more than
• one line each are indented after the first line.
The full reference comprises the author(s), the year of publication, the title
of the book or articles, provide the volume and number as well as the pages
for journal articles.
• Abbreviations.
Acceptable abbreviations in the reference list for parts of books
and other publications include the following:
• Abbreviation Book or publication part

• ed. = edition

• Rev. ed. = Revised edition

• 2nd ed. = second edition

• Ed. (Eds.) Editor (Editors)

• nd. = no date

• p. (pp.) = page (pages)

• Vol. = Volume (as in Vol. 4) Vols. Volumes (as in Vols. 1- 4)

143
• One-author entries by the same author are arranged by year of
publication, the earliest first:
Upenieks, V. (2003).
Upenieks, V. (2005).
Title
• Article or chapter title. Capitalize only the first word of the title and
of the subtitle, if any, and any proper nouns; do not italicize the title
or place quotation marks around it. Finish the element with a period.
• Mental and nervous diseases in the Russo-Japanese war: A historical analysis.
Periodical title: Journals, newsletters, magazines. Give the periodical
title in full, in uppercase and lowercase letters, Italicize the name of
the periodical.
• Social Science Quarterly
• Nonperiodical title: Books and reports. Capitalize only the first
word of the title and of the subtitle, if any, and any proper nouns;
italicize the title.
144
 Publication Information
Periodicals: Journals, newsletters, magazines.
•Give the volume number after the periodical title; italicize it.
Do not use Vol. before the number.
•Include the journal issue number (if available) along with the
volume number if the journal is paginated separately by issue.
Give the issue number in parentheses immediately after the
volume number; do not italicize it. Give inclusive page
numbers on which the cited material appears.
•Finish the element with a period.
•Example: Social Science Quarterly, 84, 508 - 525.
145
Non-periodicals Books and reports
•Give the location (city and state or, if outside of the United States, city and country where the
publisher is located as noted on the title page for books; brochures; and other separate,
non-periodical publications
•Use a colon after the location.
•Give the name of the publisher in as brief a form as is intelligible. Write out the names of
associations, corporations, and university presses, but omit superfluous terms, such as
Publishers, Co., and Inc., which are not required to identify the publisher. Retain the
words Books and Press. • If two or more publisher locations are given in the book, give
the location listed first or, if specified, the location of the publisher's home office.
•• When the author is also the publisher, use Author to indicate the publisher. Finish the element
with a period.
Examples: New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill. Washington, DC: Fiarchild.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Pretoria, South Africa: Unisa.
 Referencing
Examples by
Type Periodicals
•Periodicals include items published on a regular basis such as journals, magazines, newspapers,
and newsletters. General reference form:
•Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, xx, pp—pp.
•Herbst-Damm, K. L., & Kuhk, J. A. (2005). Volunteer support marital status, and the survival times
of terminally ill patients. Health Psychology, 24, 225-229.
•Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, xx, pp—
pp. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx
•Include the digital object identifier (DOl) in the reference if one is assigned
Magazine article
Chamberlin, J., Novotney, A., Packard, F., & Price, M. (2008, May). Enhancing worker well-being: Occupational
health psychologists convene to share their research on work, stress, and health. Monitor on Psychology, 39(5),
26
—29.
Online magazine article
Clay, R. (2008, June). Science vs. ideology: Psychologists fight back about the misuse of research. Monitor
on Psychology, 39(6). Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/
147
 Referencing
Examples by Type
Newspaper article
Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status.
The Washington Post pp. Al, A4.
• Precede page numbers for newspaper articles with p. or pp.
•If an article appears on discontinuous pages, give all page numbers, and separate the
numbers with a comma (e.g., pp. Bi, B3, BS—B7).
Online newspaper article
Brody, J. F. (2007, December 11). Mental reserves keep brain agile. The New
York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com

For an unpublished dissertation or thesis, use the following template:

Author, A. A. (1978). Title of doctoral dissertation or master's thesis
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation or master's thesis). Name of Institution,
Location.

148
Books
•Author, A. A. (1967). Title of work. Location: Publisher.
•Author, A. A. (1997). Title of work. Retrieved from http://
www,xxxxxxx
•Editor, A. A. (Ed.). (1986). Title of work. Location: Publisher.
•Editor, B. Editor, & C. Editor (Eds.). (1984). Title of book. Location:
Publisher.
•Pizzuto, J. J. (2012). Fabric science (10thed.). New York: Fiarchild.
•Mehta, P.V., & Bhardwaj, K.S. (1998). Managing quality in the apparel
industry India: New age international publishers Ltd.

149
• For further details you can consult the APA 6th
ed.

150
 Appendices
This section contain materials that, though relevant to the study,
would
disturb the flow of the report if placed in the main body of the text.
•The materials for this section include:
– Tables of raw data
– The instruments used for data collection
– Cover letters
– Introductory letters
– Follow-up letters
– Long quotations
The items that appear in the appendix section are grouped,
labelled, lettered and listed in the Table of contents.
NB: all appendices must be cited in the main report with the
151
 Appendices
Other Examples
•See Appendix B for pictures of some of the instruments used for the
investigations.
•Details of the distribution of the total number of specimens used for the phase one of the
study is presented in Tables 1 and 2 (Appendix C).
•The labels for specimens used for easy identification are shown in Tables 3 and 4
(Appendix D).
•Following ISO 7211-2:1984, three specimens each measuring 2.5cm in the warp
direction and 2.5cm in the weft direction were cut from each brand of
uniform fabric and labelled for easy identification (Table 3, Appendix D).
•Two specimens 10cm×4cm were cut from each brand of fabric and labelled (see
Table 4, Appendix D for labelling details).
NB: get the handbook for writing project works, theses and dissertations.
152