Research Methods for Engineers

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 Course Objectives
After the completion of this course, students will
be able to:
 Familiarize themselves with the art of using different
research methods and techniques
 Develop the most appropriate methodology for
research studies for improving the quality of research
 Make familiarize themselves with codes and policies
for research ethics
 Prepare research proposal related to their field of
study

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 Course Contents

Unit 1: Basic Concept of Research

Unit 2: Research Ethics
Unit 3: Process in Research Proposal
Development
Unit 4: Process in Conducting Research
Unit 5: Reporting Research Findings

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 Unit 1: Basic Concept of Research

Contents to be covered in this unit are:

 Sources of Knowledge
 Definition of Research
 Purposes of Research and Motivation
 Classification and Types of Research
 Research and Scientific Methods
 Research Methods and Research Methodology

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 Objectives of this unit
After completing this unit, students will be able to
 Distinguish the difference between the two sources or
approaches to knowledge
 Define the concept of research
 Explain the purpose and objective of research
 Describe the difference between research methodology and
research methods
 Classify research into different types based on different
criteria
 Explain the uses of each research type
 Explain the characteristics and criteria of good research
 Select the appropriate research approaches
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 1.1 Sources of Knowledge

The two major approaches of knowing the

world are:
1. Everyday experience and
2. Science

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 Everyday Experience as Sources of Knowledge

As we live in this world and interact with our

surrounding we may be confronted with new
ideas that may have important impact on our
lives.
We get access to this new information through
our senses; this is the most immediate way of
knowing something. This is what we call sensory
knowledge.

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 Everyday Experience…
We may also use the opinion of others as sources of
knowledge.
The Method of Tenacity- automatic acceptance of the
prevailing traditional beliefs and customs in which we
have been socialized.
The Method of Authority- If we enter into a new culture,
we may experience so many things for which we are not
familiar by ask someone in that culture who is supposed
to have the knowledge – an authority figure.
The a Priori Method- draw new and specific conclusion
from this general knowledge (deductive reasoning) .

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 Everyday Experience…
What is common sense?
Common sense is based on our own past
experiences and our perceptions of the world.
It originates from our day-to-day practical
experiences and in turn guides our daily
interaction with our surrounding.

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 2. The Scientific Method as a Source of
Knowledge
 Science is a body of systematized knowledge.
 In scientific method ideas are evaluated and
corrected through dispassionately observing
by means of our bodily senses or measuring
devices.
 In this case science can be seen as a
systematic and controlled extension of
common sense - and using reason to compare
various theoretical conceptualization based
on experience
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 The Scientific Method…
One of the characteristics of science is a
reliance on information that is verifiable
through experience.
That is, it must be possible for different people
in different places and at different times using
the same method to obtain comparable results.

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Science and common sense differ in terms of:
 the use of conceptual schemes and
theoretical structures
 the notion of control
 the explanations of different observed
phenomena
The difference between common sense and
science revolves around the concepts
systematic and controlled.

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The scientific method of knowing is the
scientific research, and its goal is the discovery
of regularities of nature and their
representation in theories from which
predictions can be made.
The steps in the scientific method guide
researchers in planning, conducting, and
interpreting research studies.

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Scientific research follows logical steps,
which include:
 defining the problem
 making tentative explanations
 gathering information
 testing the validity of the hypothesis
 making conclusions as to whether the
hypothesis can be accepted or rejected

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Scientific methods:
 find general rules,
 collect objective evidences,
 make testable statements,
 adopt a skeptical attitude about all claims,
 are creative,
 are public, and
 are productive

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1.2 Definition of Research

The difference between research and non-

research activity is, in the way we find answers:
the process must meet certain requirements to
be called research.
We can identify these requirements by
examining some definitions of research.

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The term ‘Research’ consists of two words:
Research = Re + Search
Re means again and again and
Search means to find out something, examine
closely & carefully, test & try, or probe…
The process of research is :

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The research is a process of which a person
observes the phenomena again and again and
collects the data and on the basis of data
analysis he/she draws some conclusions.

Also it is describing a careful, systematic,

patient study and investigation in some field of
knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or
principles/theory.

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Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes
acceptable scientific methodology to solve
problems and create new knowledge that is
generally applicable.

Scientific methods consist of systematic

observation, classification and interpretation of
data.

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Several Scholars have defined research in various ways:
some of them are
“a careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.” (The
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English)
“the manipulation of things concepts or symbols for the
purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify
knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the
practice of an art.” (Encyclopaedia of Social Science,
1930)
“a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” (Redman
and Mory, 1923)

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“It comprises defining and redefining problems;
formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions;
collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions;
and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating
hypotheses.” (Clifford Woody)

So what is research? As per your perception

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In general, research is an original addition to
the available knowledge which contributes to
its further advancement.
It is an attempt to pursue truth through the
methods of study, observation, comparison and
experiment.
In sum, research is search for knowledge using
objective and systematic methods to find
solution to a problem.

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1.3 Purposes of Research & Motivation
The main purposes of research are:
1. to acquire knowledge or to know about
‘something new’ (using basic or pure or
fundamental research)
2. to find solution to the identified problem
(using applied or action research)
in a scientific and systematic way.

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 Objectives of Research
Though each research study has its own
specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following
broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it (using
exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group
(using descriptive research studies);
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3. To determine the frequency with which
something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (using
diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables (using hypothesis-testing
research studies).

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 Motivation in Research
What makes people to undertake research?
The possible motives for doing research may be
either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the
unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some
creative work;
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4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.

However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors

motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of
government, employment conditions, curiosity
about new things, desire to understand causal
relationships, social thinking and awakening, and
the like may as well motivate (or at times
compel) people to perform research operations.

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 Characteristics of Research

To qualify research, the process must have certain

characteristics: it must be
Controlled: implies that, in exploring causality in relation to
two variables (factors), you set up your study in a way that
minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the
relationship.
Rigorous: the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
Systematic: the procedure adopted to undertake an
investigation follow a certain logical sequence.
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Valid and verifiable: whatever you conclude on the basis of
your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
Empirical: any conclusion drawn is based upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from real life experiences
or observations.
Critical: the process of investigation must be foolproof and
free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures
used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

unbiased and objective: means that you have taken each step
in an unbiased manner and drawn each conclusion to the best
of your ability and without introducing your own vested
interest.
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 Significance of Research
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking
and it promotes the development of logical habits of
thinking and organization.
To policy makers-research provides the basis for nearly
all government policies in our economic system.
To business practitioners-research has its special
significance in solving various operational and
planning problems of business and industry.
To social scientists-research is equally important for
them in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems.
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To students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D.
thesis-research may mean a careerism or a way to
attain a high position in the social structure.
To professionals in research methodology- research
may mean a source of livelihood;
To philosophers and thinkers-research may mean
the outlet for new ideas and insights;
To literary men and women-research may mean
the development of new styles and creative work;
To analysts and intellectuals-research may mean
the generalizations of new theories.
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Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for
the sake of knowledge and an important source
of providing guidelines for solving different
business, governmental and social problems.

It is a sort of formal training which enables one

to understand the new developments in one’s
field in a better way.

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 1.4 Classification & Types of Research
Research can be classified into different categories
from various perspectives:
1. Based on the application of research study
Basic or Fundamental or Pure research and Applied
research
2. Based on the objectives research
 Descriptive, Explanatory and Exploratory
3. Based on the approaches of research
 Qualitative and Quantitative research

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4. Based on fields of study
 Natural Science, Social Science, Engineering…
5. Conceptual and Empirical
6. From the point of view of time
 one-time research and longitudinal research
7. Depending upon the environment
 field-setting research, laboratory research and
simulation research

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1. Based on the application of research study
Basic or Fundamental or Pure research is mainly
concerned with generalizations & to formulate or expand
or evaluate a theory and a contribution to the existing
body of knowledge.
It is termed as “gathering knowledge for knowledge’s
sake” for understanding of the relations among variables.
The driving force for basic research is researcher’s
interest to answer a scientific question(s)and to expand
human knowledge, not to create or invent something
that has practical significance.
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Applied research aims at finding a solution for
an immediate specific problem facing a society
or an industrial/business organization. It is
used to improve the human condition directly.
Applied research focuses on testing theories
often generated by pure science, and applying
them to real situations, addressing more than
just abstract principles.

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 Distinction b/n Pure & Applied Research
Both of these kinds of research follow the same structures
and protocols for propagating and testing hypotheses and
predictions, but they vary in their ultimate goals.
An excellent example for illustrating the difference is by
using pure and applied mathematics.
Pure mathematics deals with abstract principles and
describing them with elegant theories.
Applied mathematics, by contrast, uses these equations
to explain real life phenomena, such as mechanics,
ecology and gravity.
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Similarly, research studies, concerning human
behavior carried on with a view to make
generalizations about human behavior, are also
examples of pure research.
But research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a
solution) facing a concrete social or business
problem is an example of applied research.
Applied research is used to identify social,
economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution or the entire society.
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Pure research has no direct benefits, has often
indirect benefits, which can contribute greatly to
the advancement of humanity. For example, pure
research into the structure of the atom has led to x-
rays, nuclear power and silicon chips.
Thus, the central aim of applied research is to
discover a solution for some pressing practical
problem, whereas basic research is directed
towards finding information that has a broad base
of applications and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
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 2. Based on the objectives research
(Descriptive, Explanatory and Exploratory)

Descriptive research attempts to describe and interpret

what is. It looks at systematically situations, problems,
phenomena, services, programs, individuals, groups,
institutions, methods or provides information about ,
say, living condition of a community, or describes
attitudes towards an issue.
It is used to describe, compare, contrast, classify,
analyze and interpret the entities and the events that
constitute the various fields of inquiry.
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It aims to describe the state of affairs as it exists i.e.
it reports only what has happened or what is
happening.
It therefore does not go into the causes of the
phenomenon or situation. Thus, descriptive research
cannot be used for creating causal relationship
between variables.
The methods commonly used in descriptive research
are survey methods of all kinds, including
comparative and co-relational methods, and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds.
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Explanatory or Analytical Research aims at establishing
cause and effect relationship between variables by
discovering and measuring causal relations among them.
It attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship
between two or more aspects of a situation or
phenomenon.
It is a continuation of descriptive research and builds on
exploratory and descriptive research and goes on to identify
the reasons for something that occurs.
It is beyond merely describing the characteristics, to analyze
and explain why or how something is happening.

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There are two types of explanatory research:
 Experimental research
 Ex post facto research
Experimental research: in its simplest form, experimental
research involves comparing two groups on one outcome
measure to test some hypothesis (theory) regarding
causation (experimental group and control group).
It is the best method when the purpose of research is to
determine causal influences between variables. In
experimental research, the researcher intentionally
manipulates one variable (in experimental group) to measure
its effect on the other.
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Ex post facto research: It is a method of teasing out possible
antecedents of events that have happened and cannot,
therefore, be engineered or manipulated by the
investigator.
Ex post facto in research means after the fact or
retrospectively and refers to those studies which investigate
possible cause-and-effect relationships by observing an
existing condition or state of affairs and searching back in
time for reasonable causal factors.
In social science and business research, it quite often used
by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot
control the variables.
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Exploratory research is conducted when there are
few or no earlier studies to which references can be
made for information.
It provides insights into and comprehension of an
issue or situation for more rigorous investigation
later.
Exploratory research is a type of research conducted
because a problem has not been clearly defined.
Its purpose is to gain background information and
better understand and clarify a problem.
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If a researcher is starting a new project, she/he
probably should start with exploration.
Exploratory research often relies on secondary
research such as reviewing available literature
and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as
informal discussions with consumers,
employees, management or competitors, and
more formal approaches through in-depth
interviews, focus groups, projective methods,
case studies or pilot studies.
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 3. Based on the approaches of research
(Qualitative & Quantitative research)

Qualitative research involves studies that do not attempt

to quantify their results through statistical summary or
analysis. Qualitative research seeks to describe various
aspects about behavior and other factors studied in the
social sciences and humanities. In qualitative research
data are often in the form of descriptions, not numbers.
It is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,
opinions and behavior. Research in such a situation is a
function of researcher’s insights and impressions.
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It typically involves in-depth interviews, group
discussions, artifact studies, projective techniques,
and observations without formal measurement.
A case study, which is an in-depth examination of
one person, is a form of qualitative research.
Qualitative research is much more time consuming,
but provides more richness to the data.
Quantitative research is the systematic and
scientific investigation of quantitative properties
and phenomena and their relationships.

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The objective of quantitative research is to develop
and employ mathematical models, theories and
hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomena.
The process of measurement is central to
quantitative research because it provides the
fundamental connection between empirical
observation and mathematical expression of an
attribute.
It usually starts with a theory or a general
statement proposing a general relationship
between variables.
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Quantitative approach involves the generation of data
in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion.
Quantitative researchers favor methods such as surveys
(inferential approach) and experiments and
simulations, and will attempt to test hypotheses or
statements with a view to infer from the particular to
the general.
This approach typically concentrates on measuring or
counting and involves collecting and analyzing
numerical data and applying statistical tests.
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The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a
data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships
of population. This usually means survey research where a
sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to
determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the
population has the same characteristics.
Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial
environment within which relevant information and data
can be generated. This permits an observation of the
dynamic behavior of a system (or its sub-system) under
controlled conditions.

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 4. Conceptual and Empirical research

Conceptual research is related to some abstract idea(s) or

theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or to re-interpret the existing ones.
Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone,
often without due regard for system or theory. It is data-based
research, coming up with conclusions that are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.
In empirical research, it is necessary to get facts firsthand, at
their source. In such a research, the researcher must first
provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the
probable results. He then works to gets enough facts (i.e. data)
to prove or disprove his hypothesis. 52
1.5 Research and Scientific Methods
Research, as we have already stated, can be
termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the
reasons for, and the consequences of any
particular set of circumstances, whether these
circumstances are experimentally controlled or
recorded just as they occur. Further, research
implies the researcher is interested in more than
particular results; he is interested in the
repeatability of the results and in their extension
to more complicated and general situations.”
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The scientific method is “one and same in the
branches (of science) and that method is the method
of all logically trained minds, the unity of all sciences
consists alone in its methods, not its material; the
man who classifies facts of any kind whatever, who
sees their mutual relation and describes their
sequences, is applying the Scientific Method and is a
man of science.”
Scientific method is the search of truth as determined
by logical considerations. The ideal of science is to
achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.
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Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by
experimentation, observation, logical arguments
from accepted postulates and a combination of
these three in varying proportions”.
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain
basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;

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4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but
making only adequate and correct statements about population
objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical
scrutiny are for use in testing the conclusions through
replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be
termed as scientific theories.
Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal
mode of procedure dictated by the demands of logic and objective
procedure.” i.e. it is free from personal bias or prejudice

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 1.6 Research Methods and Research Methodology

Research methods may be understood as all those

methods/techniques that are used for conduction of
research.
In other words, all those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of studying his research
problem are termed as research methods.
Research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. Methods which are concerned with the collection of data.
These methods will be used where the data already
available are not sufficient to arrive at the required
solution;
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2. Method of those statistical techniques which are
used for establishing relationships between the data
and the unknowns;
3. Those methods which are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the results obtained.
Research methods falling in the above stated last two
groups are generally taken as the analytical tools of
research.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve
the research problem and it is as a science of studying
how research is done scientifically.
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Research methodology has many dimensions and
research methods do constitute a part of the research
methodology. The scope of research methodology is
wider than that of research methods.
Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not
only talk of the research methods but also consider
the logic behind the methods we use in the context of
our research study and explain why we are using a
particular method or technique and why we are not
using others so that research results are capable of
being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by
others.

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Why a research study has been undertaken, how
the research problem has been defined, in what
way and why the hypothesis has been formulated,
what data have been collected and what particular
method has been adopted, why particular
technique of analyzing data has been used and a
host of similar other questions are usually
answered when we talk of research methodology
concerning a research problem or study.

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