Mechanics of Solids

Chapter – 3
Torsion
Prof. Bhanuprakash Tallapragada
Dept of Marine Engineering
College of Engineering
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam - 530003
The drive shaft of a twin-rotor helicopter. The power output of the turbine is
transmitted to the rotors by the shaft. The relationship between transmitted
power and shear stress in the shaft is one of the topics in this chapter.
Introduction
1. In engineering application, members carry torsional
loads.
2. Torsion of circular shafts.
3. Circular cross section is efficient for resisting
torsional loads.
4. Commonly used to transmit power in rotating
machinery.
5. We also consider Torsion of thin-walled tubes.
6. In torsion, stress is not uniform over the cross section
of the member.
Steps for Deriving governing Equation
Both torsion and bending follows the following steps
1. Assumptions about the deformation based on experimental
evidence are made.
2. Strains geometrically compatible with the assumed
deformations are determined
3. Hooke’s law is used to express the equations of compatibility
in terms of stresses.
4. Derive the equations of equilibrium to relate stresses and
the applied loads.
Torsion of Circular Shafts
Simplifying assumptions (Step 1)
1. A circular shaft subjected to a twisting couple is shown.
2. Draw straight line AB on surface of the shaft before torque is
applied.
3. After loading, AB deforms into the helix AB/ as the free end of the
shaft rotates through the angle g.
4. During the deformation, the cross sections are not distorted in
any manner—they remain plane, and the radius r does not
change.
5. In addition, the length L of the shaft remains constant.
5. Based on these observations, we make the following assumptions:
6. Circular cross sections remain plane (do not warp) and perpendicular to
the axis of the shaft.
7. Cross sections do not deform (there is no strain in the plane of the cross
section).
8. The distances between cross sections do not change (the axial normal
strain is zero).

• The deformation that results from the above assumptions is relatively simple
• Each cross section rotates as a rigid entity about the axis of the shaft.
• Although this conclusion is based on the observed deformation of a
cylindrical shaft carrying a constant internal torque, we assume that the
result remains valid even if the diameter of the shaft or the internal torque
varies along the length of the shaft.
b. Compatibility (Step 2)
1. Isolate “dx” segment of the shaft and then ‘‘peel’’ off its outer layer,
leaving us with the cylindrical core of radius r.
2. As the shaft deforms, the two cross sections of the segment rotate about
the x-axis the difference in their rotations is dq
3. Draw a straight line CD on the cylindrical surface.
4. As the cross sections undergo the relative rotation dg, CD deforms into the
helix CD/.
5. By observing the distortion of the shaded element, we recognize that the
helix angle g is the shear strain of the element.
 DD  d  dx
d

dx

The quantity dq/dx is the angle of twist per unit

length, where q is expressed in radians.
 From Hooke’s Law (Step 3)

G(dq/dx) is independent of the radial distance r.

Therefore, the shear stress varies linearly with the radial distance
r from the axis of the shaft.
Distribution of shear stress along the radius of a circular shaft.
Equilibrium (Step 4)
1. For the shaft to be in equilibrium, the resultant of the shear stress
acting on a cross section must be equal to the internal torque T
acting on that cross section.
2. The shear force acting on the area is directed perpendicular to
the radius.

Since the resultant of the shear stress acting on a

cross section must be equal to the internal torque T
acting on that cross section.

But   2 dA  J  Polar MI
If the integrand (T/GJ) is independent of x, as in the case of a
prismatic bar (constant cross sectional area) carrying a constant
torque, we get torque-twist relationship
Polar MI for Solid and Hollow Shafts
Sign Convention
Torsion formulas
The shear stress acting at the distance r from the center of the shaft:

1. Because Hooke’s law was used in the derivation of Eqs these

formulas are valid only if the shear stresses do not exceed the
proportional limit of the material in shear.
2. Furthermore, these formulas are applicable only to circular
shafts, either solid or hollow.
Solid Shaft Hollow Shaft

Torsion Formulas
Power transmission
1. In many practical applications, shafts are used to transmit
power.
2. The power P transmitted by a torque T rotating at the angular
speed o is given by P =Tw,
3. If the shaft is rotating at N rpm, we get

2N 60P
P  T  T , T 
60 2N
Statically indeterminate problems
1. The procedure for solving statically indeterminate torsion
problems is similar to axially loaded bars:
2. Draw the required free-body diagrams and write the
equations of equilibrium.
3. Derive the compatibility equations from the restrictions
imposed on the angles of twist.
4. Use the torque-twist relationships to express the angles of
twist in the compatibility equations in terms of the torques.
5. Solve the equations of equilibrium and compatibility for the
torques.
Example – 1 The copper pipe has an outer diameter of 40 mm and an
inner diameter of 37 mm. If it is tightly secured to the wall at A and
three torques are applied to it as shown, determine the absolute
maximum shear stress developed in the pipe.
Example # 2
A 2-in.-diameter solid steel cylinder is built into the support
at C and subjected to the torques TA and TB. (1) Determine the
maximum shear stresses in segments AB and BC of the
cylinder. (2) Compute the angle of rotation of end A. Use G =
12 x106 psi for steel.
Part 1

Part 2
Example – 3 The solid shaft is fixed to the support at C and subjected to the
torsional loadings shown. Determine the shear stress at points A and B and
sketch the shear stress on volume elements located at these points.
Solution
Example 4
The solid 30-mm-diameter shaft is used to transmit the torques applied
to the gears. Determine the absolute maximum shear stress on the
shaft.
 Solution

Maximum Shear Stress:

From the torque diagram Tmax = 400 Nm .
Then, applying torsion Formula.
Example – 5
Two wrenches are used to tighten the pipe. If P = 300 N is applied to each
wrench, determine the maximum torsional shear stress developed
within regions AB and BC. The pipe has an outer diameter of 25 mm and
inner diameter of 20 mm. Sketch the shear stress distribution for both
cases.
Solution:
Internal Loadings: The internal torque developed in segments AB
and BC of the pipe can be determined by writing the moment
equation of equilibrium about the x axis by referring to their
respective free - body diagrams shown in Figs. a and b.
Example 6
Statically Indeterminate Shaft Problem
A shaft consists of a 3-in.-diameter aluminum segment that is rigidly
joined to a 2-in.-diameter steel segment. The ends of the shaft are
attached to rigid supports. Calculate the maximum shear stress
developed in each segment when the torque T = 10 kip-in. is applied. Use
G = 4 x106 psi for aluminum and G = 12x 106 psi for steel.
Solution

This problem is statically indeterminate because there are two

unknown torques (Tst and Tal) but only one independent
equilibrium equation.
Compatibility
A second relationship between the torques is obtained by noting
that the right end of the aluminum segment must rotate through
the same angle as the left end of the steel segment. Therefore, the
two segments must have the same angle of twist
Maximum Shear Stress from Torsion
that is, gst = gal. Formula
Part 2
The torque T acting on a cross section located at the distance x from the fixed
end can be found from the FBD shown.

Angle of twist of the

shaft is
Torsion of Thin-Walled Tubes
Although torsion of noncircular shafts requires advanced methods
of analysis, fairly simple approximate formulas are available for
thin-walled tubes. Such members are common in construction
where light weight is of paramount importance, such as in
automobiles and airplanes.
1. Consider the thin-walled tube subjected to the torque T.
2. We assume the tube to be prismatic (constant cross section), but the
wall thickness t is allowed to vary within the cross section.
3. The surface that lies midway between the inner and outer
boundaries of the tube is called the middle surface.
4. If t is small compared to the overall dimensions of the cross section,
the shear stress t induced by torsion can be shown to be almost
constant through the wall thickness of the tube and directed tangent
to the middle surface.
5. It is convenient to introduce the concept of shear flow q, defined as
the shear force per unit edge length of the middle surface. Thus, the
shear flow is
Proof that Shear flow is constant throughout the section
1. Consider equilibrium of the element.
2. We assume that q varies in the longitudinal (x) as well as the
circumferential (s) directions.
3. Thus, the terms (ðq/ðx) dx and (ðq/ðs) ds represent the changes
in the shear flow over the distances dx and ds, respectively.
4. The force acting on each side of the element is equal to the shear
flow multiplied by the edge length.
5. Equilibrium Equation

which yield, (ðq/ðx) = (ðq/ðs) thereby proving that the shear flow
is constant throughout the tube.
Relation between T and shear flow ‘q’
1. Consider the cross section of the tube.
2. The shear force acting over the infinitesimal edge length ds of the
middle surface is dP =q.ds.
3. The moment of this force about an arbitrary point O in the cross
section is r dP=(qds) r, where r is the perpendicular distance of O
from the line of action of dP.
4. Equilibrium requires that the sum of these moments must be equal to
the applied torque T; that is,
1. We don’t have to integrate formally.
2. Since q is constant, we get
3. But
4. Where A0 = area of the cross section that is enclosed by the median
line.
5. So
6. Therefore shear flow is
Angle of twist
1. We can find the angle of twist of the tube by equating the work done
by the shear stress in the tube to the work of the applied torque T.
2. We see that work is done on the element by the shear force dP = q
ds as it moves through the distance g dx.
3. If we assume that g is proportional to t (Hooke’s law), the work is

Deformation of the element caused by shear flow

Conservation of energy states work done by the shear force is equal
to the work done by the applied torque which is Tq/2

ds S
If t is constant, we have  
s t t
where S is the length of the median line.
An aluminum tube, 1.2 m long, has the semicircular cross section. If
stress concentrations at the corners are neglected, determine (1) the
torque that causes a maximum shear stress of 40 MPa, and (2) the
corresponding angle of twist of the tube. Use G = 28 GPa for
aluminum.
Solution
Part 1
Because the shear flow is constant in a prismatic tube, the maximum
shear stress occurs in the thinnest part of the wall, which is the
semicircular portion with t = 2 mm.
Therefore, the shear flow that causes a maximum shear stress of 40 MPa
is

The cross-sectional area enclosed by the median line is

which results in the torque

 The cross section consists of two parts, labeled 1 and 2 in the
figure, each having a constant thickness. Hence, we can write

where S1 and S2 are the lengths of the median lines of parts 1 and 2 ,
respectively.
Therefore,
Torsion of Rectangular Bars
1. The analysis of circular shafts was based upon the assumption that
plane cross sections remain plane and are undistorted.
2. If the cross section of the shaft is not circular, experiments show
that the cross sections distort and do not remain plane.
3. Therefore, the formulas for shear stress distribution and torsional
rigidity derived earlier cannot be applied to noncircular members.
4. Fig shows the distortion of a rectangular bar caused by the torque
T.
5. The two significant features of the deformation are:
• The cross sections become distorted.
• The shear strain (and thus the shear stress) is zero at the edges
of the bar and largest at the middle of the sides.
1. The small element labeled A is located at the edge of the bar.
2. The shear stresses acting of the faces of this element are t1, t2, and t3
3. The two sides of the element that are shaded must be stress-free
because they are free surfaces.
4. Therefore, t1= t2= t3=0, which proves that there are no shear
stresses, and therefore no shear strains, at the corners of the bar.
The maximum shear stress tmax occurs on element B located at
the centerline of the wider face of the bar.
This stress is shown in Fig (c).
1. The analytical analysis of the torsion of noncircular bars lies in the
realm of the theory of elasticity, a topic that is beyond the scope of
this text.
2. For the rectangular bar that carries the torque T, results obtained
by numerical methods determine that the maximum shear stress
tmax and the angle of twist g are given by
Example
The wooden bar consists of two segments, each of length L. One
segment has a square cross section of width d; the cross section of
the other segment is a circle of diameter d. The working stress for
the wood is tw = 5 MPa and the shear modulus is G = 0.5 GPa. Using L
=0.6 m and d = 50 mm, determine (1) the largest torque T that can
be safely applied; and (2) the corresponding angle of twist for the
bar.
Assuming the circular segment governs, the largest safe torque is

Assuming the square segment is critical

Where C1 = 0.208 from Table

Part – 2
The angle of twist of the bar is obtained by adding the
contributions of the two segments using