INFOT 3 – NETWORKING 1

College of Computer Kenrick Agustin S. BS Information

Studies Secugal Technology Program
In Real Life… IT era
More than that?
Data
Communication

Maintenance Data
and Protection and
Administration Security

Networking
Threats and
Principles and
Attacks
Practice
Quicky History
DATA & INFORMATION
Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information
refers to processed data that enables us to take decisions.
 The word data refers to any information which is
presented in a form that is agreed and accepted upon by
is creators and users.

When result of a particular test is

declared it contains data of all
students, when you find the marks
you have scored you have the
information that lets you know
whether you have passed or failed.
DATA COMMUNICATION

This process involves a communication system

which is made up of hardware and software. The
hardware part involves the sender and receiver
In case of computer networks this exchange is
Data Communication is a process of exchanging devices and the intermediate devices through
done between two devices over a transmission
data or information which the data passes. The software part
medium.
involves certain rules which specify what is to be
communicated, how it is to be communicated
and when. It is also called as a Protocol.
Characteristics of Data Communication
The effectiveness of any data communications system
depends upon the following four fundamental
characteristics:

1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the

correct destination and correct user.

2. Accuracy: The communication system should

deliver the data accurately, without introducing
any errors. The data may get corrupted during
transmission affecting the accuracy of the
delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner
without any delay; such a data delivery is called real time transmission of
data.

4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time.

Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of data
being transmitted.

Causes:

Outdated network or any equipment

Not enough internet speed/ bandwidth
Poor connection
Prioritization
Components of
Data
Communication
 Message Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.

Sender The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).

Receiver The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data (message).

Transmission Medium It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver.

A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication.

Protocol
Protocol

• It is an agreed upon set or rules

used by the sender and receiver
to communicate data.
• A Protocol is a necessity in data
communications without which
the communicating entities are
like two persons trying to talk to
each other in a different
language without know the
other language.
DATA
REPRESENTATION

• Data is collection of raw facts

which is processed to deduce
information.

• There may be different forms in

which data may be represented.
 Text includes
combination of
alphabets in small
case as well as upper
1. Text case. It is stored as
a pattern of bits.
Prevalent encoding
system : ASCII,
Unicode

Some of the
forms of data Numbers include
combination of digits
from 0 to 9.

used in 2. Numbers It is stored as a

pattern of bits.
Prevalent encoding

communications
system : ASCII,
Unicode

are as follows:
An image is worth a
thousand words‖ is a
3. Images very famous saying. In
computers. images are
digitally stored.
4. Audio

Data can also be in the form of sound which can be

recorded and broadcasted. Example: What we hear on
the radio is a source of data or information.

Audio data is continuous, not discrete.

5. Video

Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or

movie
Still with the images
• A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple terms, a picture or image is a matrix of pixel
elements. The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon the type of image (black n white or
color) each pixel would require different number of bits to represent the value of a pixel.

• The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also called resolution) and the bit pattern used to
indicate the value of each pixel.

• Example: if an image is purely black and white (two color) each pixel can be represented by a value either 0 or 1,
so an image made up of 10 x 10 pixel elements would require only 100 bits in memory to be stored.

• On the other hand an image that includes gray may require 2 bits to represent every pixel value (00 - black, 01 –
dark gray, 10 – light gray, 11 –white). So the same 10 x 10 pixel image would now require 200 bits of memory to
be stored.

• Commonly used Image formats : jpg, png, bmp, etc

• Commonly used Image formats : jpg, png, bmp, etc
DATA FLOW
• Two devices communicate with each other by sending and
receiving data. The data can flow between the two devices in
the following ways.
1. Simplex
2. Half Duplex
3. Full Duplex
Simplex mode of
communication
• In Simplex, communication is unidirectional
• Only one of the devices sends the data and the other one
only receives the data.
Example: in the above diagram: a cpu send data while a
monitor only receives data.
Half Duplex

In half duplex both the stations can transmit

as well as receive but not at the same time.

When one device is sending other can only

receive and viceversa.
Example: A walkie-talkie.
Full Duplex
• In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the
same time.

Example: mobile phones

COMPUTER
NETWORK
• Computer Networks are used for
data communications
• A computer network can be
defined as a collection of nodes.
• A node can be any device capable
of transmitting or receiving data.
• The communicating nodes have
to be connected by
communication links
• A Computer network should ensure:
• reliability of the data communication process
• should comply security of the data
• performance by achieving higher throughput and smaller delay times
Categories of Network
• Networks are categorized on the basis of their size.
• Three Categories:
1. Local Area Networks (LAN)
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Local Area Networks (LAN) is
usually limited to a few
kilometers of area. It may be
privately owned and could be a
network inside an office on one
of the floor of a building or a
LAN could be a network
consisting of the computers in a
entire building.
• Wide Area Network (WAN) is
made of all the networks in a
(geographically) large area. The
network in the entire state of
Maharashtra could be a WAN
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is of size between LAN & WAN. It
is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN. It may comprise the entire
network in a city like Manila.
PROTOCOL

• A Protocol is one of the components of a data communications system.

Without protocol communication cannot occur. The sending device cannot
just send the data and expect the receiving device to receive and further
interpret it correctly.
 PROTOCOL

When the sender sends a message it may consist of text,

number, images, etc. which are converted into bits and
grouped into blocks to be transmitted and often certain
additional information called control information is also added
to help the receiver interpret the data.
• For successful communication to occur, the sender
and receiver must agree upon certain rules called
protocol.
• A Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs
data communications.
• A protocol defines what is to be communicated,
how it is to be communicated and when it is to be
communicated.
Elements of a Protocol
• Three key elements of a protocol:
A. Syntax It means the structure or format of the data. It is
the arrangement of data in a particular order.
B. Semantics It tells the meaning of each section of bits and
indicates the interpretation of each section. It also tells what
action/decision is to be taken based on the interpretation.
C. Timing It tells the sender about the readiness of the
receiver to receive the data It tells the sender at what rate
the data should be sent to the receiver to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.
STANDARDS IN NETWORKING

Standards are necessary in

Without standards we would
networking to ensure
have proprietary products
interconnectivity and
creating isolated islands of
interoperability between
users which cannot
various networking hardware
interconnect.
and software components.
Data communications standards are
classified into two categories:

1. De facto Standard
o These are the standards that have been traditionally used and
mean by fact or by convention
o These standards are not approved by any organized body but are
adopted by widespread use.
2. De jure standard
o It means by law or by regulation.
o These standards are legislated and approved by an body that is
officially recognized.
 • Standards are created by standards creation
Standard committees, forums, and government regulatory
Organizations agencies.
in field of o Examples of Standard Creation Committees :
1. International Organization for
Networking Standardization(ISO)
2. International Telecommunications Union –
Telecommunications Standard (ITU-T)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) 5. Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)
Examples of Forums Examples of Regulatory Agencies:
1. ATM Forum 1. Federal Communications Committee
2. 2. MPLS Forum (FCC)
3. Frame Relay Forum
Signals
Computer networks are designed to transfer data from one
point to another. During transit data is in the form of
electromagnetic signals. Hence it is important to study data and
signals before we move to further concepts in data communication.
DATA & SIGNALS
• Data can be Analog or Digital.
1. Analog data refers to information that is continuous; ex.
sounds made by a human voice
2. Digital data refers to information that has discrete states.

Digital data take on discrete values. For example, data are stored
in computer memory in the form of Os and 1s
Signals can be of two types:
1. Analog Signal: They have infinite values in a range.
2. Digital Signal: They have limited number of defined values
ANALOG SIGNAL
• An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of
time.
• As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and
includes an infinite number of values along its path as it can be seen
in the figure below.
• A simple analog signal is a sine wave that cannot be further
decomposed into simpler signals.
Periodic & Non Periodic Signals
• Signals which repeat itself after a fixed time period are called Periodic
Signals.
• Signals which do not repeat itself after a fixed time period are called
Non-Periodic Signals.
• In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals
and non-periodic digital signals.
• A sine wave is characterized by three parameters:
1. Peak Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase
Characteristics
of an Analog
Signal
Peak Amplitude
• The amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its intensity at time
• The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of the highest intensity.
• The amplitude of a signal is proportional to the energy carried by the signal
Frequency
• Frequency refers to the number of cycles completed by the wave in
one second.
• Period refers to the time taken by the wave to complete one second.
 • Phase describes the position of the
waveform with respect to time
(specifically relative to time O).
Phase • Phase indicates the forward or
backward shift of the waveform
from the axis
• It is measured in degrees or radian
The figure shows the sine waves with same
amplitude and frequency but different phases
Relation between Frequency & Period
• Frequency & Period are inverse of each other.
• It is indicated by the following formula:

Example1. A wave has a frequency of 100hz. Its period(T)

is given by
T = 1/ F = 1/ 100 = 0.01 sec
Example2. A wave completes its one cycle in 0.25
seconds.
Its frequency is given by
F = 1 / T = 1 / 0.25 = 4 Hz
 Wavelength

The wavelength of a signal refers to

the relationship between frequency
(or period) and propagation speed of
the wave through a medium.

The wavelength is the distance a

signal travels in one period.
• It is given by
Wavelength = Propagation Speed X Period
OR
Wavelength =Propagation Speed X 1/Frequency

• It is represented by the symbol : λ (pronounced as lamda)

• It is measured in micrometers
• It varies from one medium to another.
 Composite Signal
• A composite signal is a combination
of two or more simple sine waves
with different frequency, phase and
amplitude.
• If the composite signal is periodic,
the decomposition gives a series of
signals with discrete frequencies; if
the composite signal is non-
periodic, the decomposition gives a
combination of sine waves with
continuous frequencies.
 “For data
communication a simple
sine wave is not useful,
what is used is a
composite signal which
is a combination of many
simple sine waves.”
Digital Signal
• A digital is a signal that has discrete values.
• The signal will have value that is not continuous.
LEVEL
• Information in a digital signal
can be represented in the
form of voltage levels.
• Ex. In the signal shown, a ‘1‘ is
represented by a positive
voltage and a ‘0‘ is
represented by a Zero voltage.
BIT LENGTH or Bit Interval (Tb)
• It is the time required to send one bit.
• It is measured in seconds
 BIT RATE

• It is the number of bits transmitted in

one second.
• It is expressed as bits per second
(bps). Relation between bit rate and
bit interval can be as follows:
Bit rate = 1 / Bit interval
 Baud Rate

• It is the rate of Signal Speed, i.e the rate at which

the signal changes.
• A digital signal with two levels ‘0‘ & ‘1‘ will have the
same baud rate and bit rate & bit rate.
• The diagram shows three signal of
period (T) 1 second
• a) Signal with a bit rate of 8 bits/ sec
and baud rate of 8 baud/sec
• b) Signal with a bit rate of 16 bits/ sec
and baud rate of 8 baud/sec
• c) Signal with a bit rate of 16 bits/ sec
and baud rate of 4 baud/sec
TYPES OF CHANNELS:

Low pass Channel Band pass channel

• This channel has the lowest • This channel has the lowest
frequency as ‘0‘ and highest frequency as some non-zero
frequency as some non-zero frequency ‘f1‘ and highest
frequency ‘f1‘. This channel frequency as some non-zero
can pass all the frequencies frequency ‘f2‘. This channel
in the range 0 to f1. can pass all the frequencies
in the range f1 to f2
Transmission of Digital signal
1. Baseband Transmission
The signal is transmitted without making any change to it (ie. Without
modulation)
In baseband transmission, the bandwidth of the signal to be transmitted has to
be less than the bandwidth of the channel.
2. Broad band Transmission
Given a bandpass channel, a digital signal cannot be transmitted directly through it
In broadband transmission we use modulation, i.e we change the signal to analog
signal before transmitting it.
The digital signal is first converted to an analog signal, since we have a bandpass
channel, we cannot directly send this signal through the available channel.
References:
• Introduction to data communications and networking. (n.d.). archive.mu.ac.in. Retrieved

February 20, 2023, from https://archive.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/syllFybscit/dcn.pdf

• W. Stallings, ―Data and Computer Communications‖, Eight Edition,Pearson Education.

• Behrouz A Forouzan, ―Data communications and Networking‖, Fourth Edition, Mc-Graw Hill

Achyut Godbole, ―Data communications and Networks, TMH

• Dr. Sidnie Feit, ―TCP/IP‖, Second Edition, TMH