Network Topologies

Simple Physical Topologies

• Physical topology: physical layout of nodes on a
network
• Four fundamental shapes:
– Bus
– Ring
– Star
– Mesh
• May create hybrid topologies
• Topology integral to type of network, cabling
infrastructure, and transmission media used
 Why we need a topology
Choosing one topology over another can
impact :
– type of equipment the network needs
– capabilities of the equipment
– network’s growth
– way a network is managed
BUS TOPOLOGY
 Bus topology
• A Bus topology consists of a single cable—called a
backbone— connecting all nodes on a network
without intervening connectivity devices
• Devices share responsibility for getting data from
one point to another
• Terminators stop signals after reaching end of
wire
– Prevent signal bounce
• Inexpensive, not very scalable
• Difficult to troubleshoot, not fault-tolerant
 Bus
Advantages Disadvantage
• Works well for small • Management costs can be
networks high
• Easy to install • Network disruption when
• Relatively inexpensive to computers are added or
implement removed
• A break in the cable will
prevent all systems from
accessing the network.
• Difficult to troubleshoot
Ring
 Ring topology

 Each node is connected to the two nearest nodes so the entire network forms a circle
 One method for passing data on ring networks is token passing
 Data travels around the network
 Traffic flows in one direction
 Slow performance
 One workstation goes down; whole network goes down
 Network is highly dependent
 Ring
Advantages Disadvantage
• Cable faults are easily Expensive
located, making Requires more cable and
troubleshooting easier network equipment at the
• Ring networks are start
moderately easy to install Expansion to the network
can cause network
disruption
A single break in the cable
can disrupt the entire
network
CSC1202-2013 (c) Nouf AlJaffan
 Star

CSC1202-2013 (c) Nouf AlJaffan

 Simple Physical Topologies
Star topology
– Every node on the network is connected through a
central device called hub or switch.
 Star (continued)
• Any single cable connects only two devices
– Cabling problems affect two nodes at most
• Requires more cabling than ring or bus networks
– More fault-tolerant
• Easily moved, isolated, or interconnected with other
networks
– Scalable
• Supports max of 1024 addressable nodes on logical
network
 Star
Advantages Disadvantage
Good option for modern • Hub is a single point of
networks failure
Low startup costs • Requires more cable than
Easy to manage the bus
Offers opportunities for
expansion
Most popular topology in
use; wide variety of
equipment available
Mesh
 Simple Physical Topologies
• Mesh Topology: Each computer connects to every
other.
• High level of redundancy.
• Rarely used.
– Wiring is very complicated
– Cabling cost is high
– Troubleshooting a failed cable is tricky
– A variation hybrid mesh – create point to point
• connection between specific network devices, often
• seen in WAN implementation.
 Mesh
Advantages Disadvantage
• Robust Requires more cable than
• There is the advantage of the other LAN topologies
privacy or security Complicated
• The network can be implementation
expanded without  Installation and reconnection
disruption to current uses are difficult.
 Sheer bulk of wiring can be
• Point to point links make greater than the available space
fault identification and fault can accommodate
isolation easy  Expensive
 Hybrid Physical Topologies
• One example of Hybrid Topology is Tree topology
• Tree topology is a combination of Bus and Star topology.
• It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a
linear bus backbone cable.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down
• An example of this network could be cable TV technology
 Choosing a Topology
– BUS
• network is small
• network will not be frequently reconfigured
• least expensive solution is required
• network is not expected to grow much
– STAR
• it must be easy to add/remove PCs
• it must be easy to troubleshoot
• network is large
• network is expected to grow in the future
– RING
• network must operate reasonably under heavy load
• higher speed network is required
• network will not be frequently reconfigured
 PROTOCOL LAYERS
• A protocol is required when two entities need to
communicate.
• When communication is not simple, we may
divide the complex task of communication into
several layers.
 PROTOCOL LAYERS
• Example ( Different Cities)
• Now assume that Ann has to move to another town because of
her job.
 OSI MODEL
• The layered model that dominated data communication and
networking literature before 1990 was the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. Everyone believed that the OSI
model would become the ultimate standard for data
communications—but this did not happen. The TCP/IP
protocol suite became the dominant commercial
architecture because it was used and tested extensively in the
Internet; the OSI model was never fully implemented.
 THE OSI MODEL
• It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of
which defines a part of the process of moving information
across a network .

The user support

layers

links the two

subgroups

The network support

layers
 Layered Architecture
• As the message travels from A
to B, it may pass through many
intermediate nodes. These
intermediate nodes usually
involve only the first three
layers of the OSI model.
• Each layer defines a family of
functions distinct from those of
the other layers.
• Within a single machine, each
layer calls upon the services of
the layer just below it. Layer 3,
for example, uses the services
provided by layer 2 and
provides services for layer 4.
Between machines, layer x on one machine
logically communicates with layer x on
another machine.
 Layered Architecture
• Interfaces between Layers: Each interface defines
what information and services a layer must provide for the
layer above it.

• The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in

software; lower layers are a combination of hardware and
software, except for the physical layer, which is mostly
hardware.
 Encapsulation • The process starts at
layer 7 (the application
layer), then moves from
layer to layer in
ta Unit descending, sequential
PPDU order. At each layer, a
header can be added to
SPDU the data unit. At layer 2,
Segment a trailer may also be
Packet added. When the
rame formatted data unit
passes through the
Bits
physical layer (layer 1), it
is changed into an
electromagnetic signal
and transported along a
A packet at level 7 is encapsulated in the packet at level
6. The whole packet at level 6 is encapsulated in a packet physical link.
at level 5, and so on.
 Physical Layer (1)
• The physical layer coordinates the functions
required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium.
• It deals with the mechanical and electrical
specifications of the interface and
transmission media.
• It also defines the procedures and functions
that physical devices and interfaces have to
perform for transmission to occur.
 Physical Layer (1)
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media.
o The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface
between the devices and the transmission media.
o It also defines the type of transmission media.
 Representation of bits.
o To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals—electrical or
optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are
changed to signals).
 Data rate.
o The transmission rate—the number of bits sent each second.
 Synchronization of bits.
o the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
 Line configuration (point-to-point, multipoint).
 Physical topology (mesh, bus, star, ring)
 Transmission mode (simplex mode, half-duplex, full-duplex)
 Data Link Layer (2)
• The data link layer transforms the physical
layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link. It makes the physical layer appear error-
free to the upper layer (network layer).
 Framing.
• The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.

 Physical addressing.
– If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the
data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or
receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside
the sender’s network, the receiver address is the address of the
connecting device that connects the network to the next one.
 Data Link Layer (2)
Flow control.
o If the rate at which the data is absorbed by the receiver is less
than the rate produced at the sender, the data link layer imposes
a flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver.
Error control.
o The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also
uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is
normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
Access control.
o When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link
layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control
over the link at any given time.
 Network Layer (3)
• The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks
(links).
• Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the
packet between two systems on the same network (link), the
network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of
origin to its final destination.
• If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually
no need for a network layer. However, if the two systems are
attached to different networks (links) with connecting
devices between the networks (links), there is often a need
for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination
delivery.
 Network Layer (3)
 Logical addressing.
o The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer
handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the
network boundary, we need another addressing system to help
distinguish the source and destination systems. The network
layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer
that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the
sender and receiver.
 Routing.
o When independent networks or links are connected together to
create internetworks (network of networks) or a large network,
the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or
switch the packets to their final destination. One of the functions
of the network layer is to provide this mechanism.
 Transport Layer(4)
• The transport layer is responsible for process-
to-process delivery of the entire message. A
process is an application program running on
the host.
• The transport layer, ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and in order.
 Service-point addressing.
o The transport layer header must add a type of address called
a service-point address (or port address). The network layer
gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer
gets the entire message to the correct process on that
computer.
 Transport
 Segmentation and reassembly.
Layer(4)
o A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment
containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport
layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in
transmission.
 Connection control.
o The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-oriented.
 Flow control.
o Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than
across a single link.
 Error control.
o Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control. However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-
process rather than across a single link. Error correction is usually
achieved through retransmission.
 Session Layer(5)
• The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes,
maintains, and synchronizes the interaction between communicating
systems.
 Dialog control.
• The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows
the communication between two processes to take place in either
half-duplex or full-duplex mode.
 Synchronization.
• The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints (synchronization
points) into a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of
2,000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages
to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged
independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission
of page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after system
recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be
resent.
 Presentation Layer (6)
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems.
 Translation.
o The presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between these different encoding methods.
o The presentation layer at the sender changes the information
from its sender-dependent format into a common format. The
presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the
common format into its receiver-dependent format.
 Encryption.
 Compression.
 Application Layer (7)
• The application layer enables the user,
whether human or software, to access the
network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for
services such as electronic mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed
information services.
Summary of OSI Layers
 Encapsulation
How does data move through the layers?

Data Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical Data
38
Real Life Analogy
Doesn’t know how the
Postal network works

Label contains Un-packing

routing info
Doesn’t know
contents of letter

Postal Service 39
 Introduction TCP/IP
• The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known
as TCP/IP) is the set of communications
protocols used for the Internet and other similar
networks.
• It is named from two of the most important
protocols in it:
– the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
– the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two
networking protocols defined in this standard.

40
 Introduction TCP/IP
• The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known
as TCP/IP) is the set of communications
protocols used for the Internet and other similar
networks.
• It is named from two of the most important
protocols in it:
– the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
– the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two
networking protocols defined in this standard.

41
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• Today, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model with the
layers named similarly to the ones in the OSI model.
TCP/IP Encapsulation

46
Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP Protocol
Suite • Here, two layers, session
and presentation, are
missing from the TCP/IP
protocol suite. These two
layers were not added to
the TCP/IP protocol suite
after the publication of the
OSI model. The application
layer in the suite is usually
considered to be the
combination of three layers
in the OSI model.