Industrial Electronics

Subject Code- ETCE/IE-1/S5

Presented By
ANUJ BISWAS
Visiting-Faculty, Electrical Engineering

GREATER KOLKATA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

MANAGEMENT
BARUIPUR, south 24 PARGANAS 743387
Introduction
• Industrial Electronics is the study of conversion and control of
Electrical power.

• The conversion of Electric power is also known as switching

converters or power Converters.

• By the conversion the power is change from one level to another like
( D.C to A.C vice-versa) or (low to high ; vice- versa) , (fixed to
variable ; vice-versa) etc.

• Optimally suited for consumer load demand.

Block diagram representation

Source of electric Power Converter Load

power

Controller

Reference Input signal

• System consists of power converter and controller units including
their measurement and interface circuits.
• Power converters are the power semiconductor devices.
• Controllers are the control circuits to generate the signal for on-off
conditions of switching devices.
Components of systems
• Source of Electrical Power- D.c generator , photovolatic cell,
Battery, d.c power generator , alternator.
• Power converter is also known as the power semiconductor or
power modulator.( power diode, power transistor, power BJT, SCR,
Thyristor, DIAC, TRIAC, IGBT).
• The output of power semiconductor devices may be variable d.c,
variable a.c , variable frequency. (depends upon load).
• Control circuits provides the triggering pulse to the power
semiconductor devices .
• Feedback signals ( voltage , current, speed, position) are used as
input signal to the controller.
• Power semiconductor devices are available from few volt to several
KV or few amps to several Kamps.
Properties of power Semiconductor Devices

• Break down voltage should be high.

• On state voltage drop should be low.
• On state resistance should be low.
• Turn-on or Turn-off process should be very fast.
• Power dissipation capacity is high.
Power Semiconductor Devices
Symbols
Applications

• Switch mode power supply (SMPS)

• Energy conversion.
• Process control and factory Automation.
• Transportation : Electrical vehicles used power converters.
• Welding, Electroplating, induction heating.
• AC and D.C drives.
Modern Usage
Advantages & Disadvantages of Power converter Devices

• ADVANTAGE

• Efficiency is more in power converter as less loss in power

semiconductor device.
• High reliability.
• Life period of power converter is long.
• Less maintenance is required due to absence of moving components.
• Dynamic response of the system is very high.
•
DISADVANTAGE

Generates Harmonics in supply system as well as load.

The ac to dc or dc to ac converters operates at low power factor.
Cost is high.
Capacity and Usage
Power Semiconductor Devices
Power Semiconductor Devices
Power Semiconductor Devices
Power Semiconductor devices
Power Diode

• Basics
• Power diodes are three layer power semiconductor devices. To
increase the power handling capability these changes are made.
( p+,n-,n+ ).
• Power semiconductor diodes are used to perform different operations
like rectification, freewheeling, energy feedback etc in industrial
electronics applications.
• Power diodes have larger power handling capacity.
• Switching speeds of power diode is low compared to the low power
signal diode.
Types of Power Diode

• Depending upon the reverse recovery characteristics and

manufacturing techniques, power diodes are three of types.
• 1. General purpose P-N junction Diode.
• 2. Fast Recovery Diode.
• 3. Shottky Diode
•
Different power diodes
Different Power Diodes

General Power diode-

• High power rating.
• Low cost.
• Rating- ( 50 volt to 5 KV).
• High Reverse Recovery current. (25 micro second).
• Applications- Rectifiers, Battery charging, electrical traction. UPS.

Fast Recovery Diode-

• Recovery Time is less than 5 micro second.
• High power rating- (50 volt to 3 KV).
• Platinum or gold doping is used to decrease reverse recovery time.
• Application- Choppers, commutation circuits, induction heating.
Different Power diodes
Shot- key Diode

• Metal and semi conductor junction is used to decrease the on-

state voltage drop (0.3 V to 0.4 Volt).
• It is designed for low power applications.(<300 Volt, 10A-
20A).
• As metal is used , leakage current is high.
• This diode is used for power supply applications.
Characteristics of Shottkey diode

• Schottkey diode operates at low forward voltage drop i.e less

than 1 volt.
• It can able to with stand high junction temperature upto
175℃.
• When schottkey diode is forward biased electrons from n-
layers cross the barrier potential and reach to the positive
potential metal. Thus schottkey diode is a majority carrier
device. There is no storage charge.
• The reverse break down voltage of Schottkey diode is 100 Volt
to 200 volt. Current rating (1 A to 400A).
Difference between Schottkey and P-N junction Diode

Schottky Diode P-N junction Diode

1.During reverse biased, large 1. In reverse biased condition of P-

leakage current flows from cathode N diode, a small leakage current
to anode. flows.

2. The on- state voltage drop 2. The on –state voltage drop

across diode is very small. (0.3 V – across diode is about 1 volt.
0.5 V)
3. Schottkey diodes have low power 3. Power loss in P-N junction diode is
loss compared to signal diode. more.

4.High operating frequency. 4. Low operating frequency.

Construction of Power Diode.
Construction Diagram
Construction of power diode

• Power diode is consists of three layers ( n+, p+, n- ). n- layer is

epitaxialy grown on n+ layer.
• Heavily doped p + layer is diffused on n- layer to form anode
of power diode.
• The depletion layer will form at the junction (J1) and another
one (J2).
• During Forward bias condition , large number of charge
carriers from p+ region drift to n- region and can cross it. At
the same time electrons drift to n- layer from n+ layer. In n-
drift region large numbers of holes and electrons influx are
shown. This is called high level injection.
• When the influx of holes and electrons is very high , thermal
equilibrium charge densities in n- drift layer changes. Hence in
Excess charges from both the junction must be same.
Construction

• During reverse bias condition , charge carrier density decreases, as

they are swept away from the junctions of p+,n- layers and n-,n+
layers. The n- layer is the drift layer provides resistance(large) in
reverse bias, so conductivity is low but it also provides high
conductivity in forward bias condition.
• But large injection of minority carriers during reverse bias condition
in drift region creates switching delay problem during turn-off.
•
Comparison between P-N junction diode and power diode

Signal diode (P-N junction) Power Diode

When input forward voltage is greater Diode turns on when the forward bias
the threshold voltage (0.7 V), diode input voltage is greater than threshold
becomes turn on, current increases voltage( 1V) .current increases linearly.
exponentially.

Low current and low voltage handling High current and high voltage
capability. handling capability.

Two layer device. Three layer device.

General diodes are available from few Power diodes are available from few
volts to 1000 volt (Break down volts to 10 KV and from few amps to 5
voltage) and power rating upto 50 W. kA.

On state voltage drop is about 0.7 volt On state voltage drop is about 1volt.
Reverse recovery time is low. Reverse recovery time is high.
Reverse Recovery characteristics of Power diode

• When power diode is switched- off , the forward diode current ,

decays to zero and diode continues to conduct in reverse direction
due to storage charge in depletion region and semiconductor layers
(n+, n-, p+). The reverse current flows through the diode for a time is
called Reverse Recovery Time.
Reverse Recovery Characteristics

• Reverse recovery time Trr = Ta + Tb

Reverse recovery time consists of two sections. One is Ta and
another is Tb.
Ta = Time period between the reverse current becomes zero and the
diode reaches the maximum peak current.
Tb= Time period from the instant of peak reverse current to when it
reaches to 25% of reverse recovery current.
During this time period, storage charge from semiconductor layers
should be removed.
The time ratio ( Tb\ Ta ) is called softness factor , denoted by ‘S’.
When S – factor is less than 1 , diode is called fast recovery diode.
When S- factor is equal to 1, diode is called soft recovery diode.
Reverse recovery
Different Reverse Recovery
Reverse Recovery
 Power Transistor

• Power transistors are three terminal devices which are

composed of semiconductor materials. They feature emitter,
base and collector terminals. These devices are particularly
designed to control high current – voltage rating.
• The specialty of this device is when voltage or current is
applied to one pair of terminals, it controls the voltage or
current at the other pair of terminals. These transistors might
be either of NPN or PNP polarity.
• Power transistors are classified into the following types:
• Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
• Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFETs)
• Static Induction Transistor (SITs)
• Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBTs)
Different Power Transistors
Applications

• Power transistors are used in:

• Switch-mode power supplies (SMPS)
• Relays
• Converters
• Power amplifiers
• DC to AC converters
• Power supply
• Power control circuits
• Inverters
POWER BJT
Construction of power BJT

• A bipolar transistor is a three layer two junction

semiconductor device (n-p-n) or (p-n-p). But power transistor
is four layer device which are (n+, p, n-, n+). Base is used as
input terminal and output terminal is collector.
• Input characteristics: This is given between the base current (I-
B) and base-emitter voltage(V-BE).
• Output Characteristics: This is plotted between the collector
current and collector- emitter voltage.
• A signal BJT operates in active region , But power BJT operates
in Cut-off and Saturation region.
Construction Diagram
Construction details

• The width of emitter n+ layer is 10^19 cm^-3.

• Base thickness is moderate.
• Addition layer called drift layer is impinged in structure to increase
blocking voltage.
• The structure is vertical in order to increase current rating.
• Charge carriers enter p region from n+ at various points to increase
effective cross sectional area.
• If base current is made negligably small, then switch is turned-off
and it is in cut-off state.
• If negative values of base-emitter voltage, base current will be zero
and Transistor remains in cut-off state.
Monolithic Design – Darlington pair of Power BJT

• Base region thickness can not be decreased to small value, as it

will increase the break down voltage of power BJT. But it has
significant large base thickness which may reduce the current
amplification gain of power BJT.
• To increase the current gain of power BJT we use Darlington
pair of power BJT.
• From this arrangement, the current gain of power BJT will
increase from (5 to 10).
• Current gain is the ratio of collector current to Base current of
power BJT.
Darlington pair

• A Darlington transistor (also known as a Darlington pair) is an

electronics component made via the combination of two BJTs (
Bipolar Junction Transistor) connected in such a way that it allows a
very high amount of current gain. This is achieved through a
compounding amplification, whereby the current is amplified by
the first transistor and then further amplified by the second
transistor.
•
Darlington

• The current gain of overall Darlington pair of power BJT will

be-
• ꞵ= ꞵ1+ꞵ2+ꞵ1ꞵ2

• Advantages
• Current amplification increases.
• Base drive power requirement is reduced.
• Disadvantages
• Both power BJTs are driven into hard saturations.
• Quasi- saturation occurs in low power applications.
• Hard Saturation occurs in High power applications.
Safe operating Area of Power BJT
Description of safe operating Zone

• The safe operating zone represents the maximum values of

current and voltage at which power BJT can with- stand.
• Two types of safe operating zone is presents for power BJT are
presents.
• 1. Forward Bias safe operating Area. (FBSOA).
• 2. Reverse Bias safe operating Area. ( RBSOA).
• Forward Bias safe operating Area of power transistor represents
between collector current and collector-emitter voltage in
logarithmic scale.
• In previous diagram- (ABCDE)
• AB – Maximum limit of collector current when Collector-emitter
voltage is up-to 100V.
• BC- When collector- emitter voltage is further increased, collector
current further decreases to avoid maximum junction
temperature.
Boundary (FBSOA)

• CD- for high value of further collector-emitter voltage, the

collector current is further reduced to avoid Second-Break
down.
• DE- Maximum voltage handling capability.

• When power transistor is operated as switch, and it is driven

by pulse, then the range of ABCDE can be extended.

• RBSOA- Base Emitter junction is reverse biased and base

current flows in reverse direction .When the base current is
zero, power BJT can withstand voltage upto collector-emitter
break down voltage. When base- emitter junction is reverse
biased, transistor can withstand upto collector- base break
down voltage with small collector current.
I-v Characteristics of power BJT
I-V Characteristics
• The I-V characteristic of Power BJT divides into four regions.
• Cut-off region
• Active region
• Quasi-saturation region
• Hard saturation region
• In the structure of BJT, there are two junctions; Emitter junction (BE) and
Collector junction (CB).
• 1. Cut-off region:
• The BE and CB both junctions are reverse bias. The base current I B=0 and
collector current IC is equal to the reverse leakage current ICEO. The region
below the characteristic for IB=0 is cut-off region. In this region, BJT offers large
resistance to the flow of current. Hence it is equivalent to an open circuit.
• 2. Active region:
• The BE junction is forward bias and CB junction is reverse bias. The collector
current IC increase slightly with an increase in the voltage V CE if IB is increased.
The relation of IB and IC is, IC=βdcIB is true in the active region.
I-V Characteristics
• If BJT uses as an amplifier or as a series pass transistor in the voltage regulator, it
operates in this region. The dynamic resistance in this region is large. The power
dissipation is maximum.
• 3. Quasi-saturation region:
• Quasi-saturation region is between the hard saturation and active region. This
region exists due to the lightly doped drift layer. When the BJT operates at high
frequency, it is operated in this region. Both junctions are forward bias. The
device offers low resistance compared to the active region. So, power loss is less.
In this region, the device does not go into deep saturation. So, it can turn off
quickly. Therefore, we can use for higher frequency applications.
• 4. Hard-saturation region:
• The Power BJT push into the hard-saturation region from the quasi-saturation
region by increasing the base current. This region is also known as deep
saturation region. The resistance offers in this region is minimum. It is even less
than the quasi-saturation region. So, when the BJT operates in this region, power
dissipation is minimum. The device acts as a closed switch when it operates in
this region. But it needs more time to turn off. So, this region is suitable only for
low-frequency switching application. In this region, both junctions are forward
bias. The collector current is not proportional to the base current, I C remains
almost constant at IC(sat) and independent from the value of base current.
Mode of operation

Operating Region Collector- Base Emitter- Base Junction

Junction

Cut-off Region Reverse biased Reverse Biased

Saturation Region Forward Biased Forward Biased

Active Region Reverse Biased Forward Biased

Significance

• In cut-off region, the power BJT acts as a off switch. (Open).

• In Active region, It acts as an amplifier.

• In Saturation region, the power BJT acts as a on switch.

Load Line of power BJT
Power BJT
Switching characteristics of Power BJT
Break down phenomenon of Power BJT

• PRIMARY BREAKDOWN - It is the limit of collector- emitter

voltage at which the power BJT can sustain high collector current.
When the junction temperature with in safe limit, it may not damage
the device.

• SECOND BREAK DOWN – When power BJT operates

 Power MOSFET (METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD
EFFECT TRANSISTOR)
• It is a three terminal device drain and source is a main terminal and
gate is a control terminal.
• It is a unipolar device (Majority carrier device). Conduction occurs due
to flow of electron.
• It has unipolar voltage blocking capability. (Blocks the forward
voltage).
• It is fully controlled device.
• It can be used when fast switching is required. (1 to 1 MHz).
• It is a positive temperature coefficient device.
• No secondary breakdown occurs.
• It has less switching loss.
• It has high input impedance at gate terminal.
Symbol
I-V characteristics of Power MOSFET
DESCRIPTION
Description

• N channel MOSFET is shown in the figure. When sufficient

voltage is applied to the gate terminal of the P-MOSFET,
current flow from drain to source.
• When the gate voltage is less than the threshold voltage, the
current flow through the circuit is zero.
• Threshold voltage is 2V to 3 V. for power MOSFET.
• Drain to source voltage should be greater than the V-DD. To
avoid the avalanche break-down .
• Drain current is a function of source to drain voltage when
gate voltage is constant.
• The operating region is consists of three region.
• OHOMIC REGION, SATURATION REGION, CUT-OFF REGION.
Description
• Maximum allowable gate voltage- 20-30 V
• Maximum allowable drain to source voltage- Few hundred
volts.
Construction

• Power MOSFET is a four layer device n+, n-, p+, p- layers ,

vertically oriented structure.
• The doping density of two n+ layer is high. One end is used as
a source and another end is used as drain.
• The n- layer is diffused epitaxial on n+ layer under p region.
which is moderately doped .its thickness determines the
breakdown voltage.
• When gate to source voltage is zero, current cannot flow from
drain to source.
• When gate to source voltage is postive, an electric field will
develop and drain current starts to flow. As the gate voltage
increases drain current also increases.
Switching Characteristics of Power MOSFET
Switching

• When the pulse input voltage is applied to the gate of power

mosfet, the device will turn-on if the gate to source voltage is
greater than threshold voltage.
• Delay time- Time for the device at which it is charged up from
zero to threshold voltage value.
• Rise time – time required for the device to be charged up
when gate to source voltage increase from threshold to full
gate voltage.
• Turn-on time- sum of delay time and rise time
• Power MOSFET is a majority charge carrier devices. When the
gate voltage is removed it starts to turning- off.
• Turn –off time of power MOSFET is 30 to 300 ns.
Comparison
Power MOSFET Power BJT

Unipolar Device Bipolar Device

Voltage controlled Device Current controlled device

Input Impedance is very high. Input Impedance of power BJT is low.

Positive Temperature coefficient Negative Temperature co-efficient

Device. device.

Secondary Breakdown does-not Secondary Breakdown occurs due to

occurrs. current crowding.

Operating frequency is high about operating frequency is low about 10

100KHz. KHz.

On-state voltage drop is high. On- state voltage drop is low.

It is very sensitive to voltage spikes. It is less sensitive to voltage spikes.

Safe Operating Area of Power MOSFET

• The safe operating area represents maximum values of current

and voltage at which the power MOSFET can withstand safely.
Description

• The SOA is determined by the four parameters.

• Maximum Drain Current
• Internal Junction Temperature.
• Break down Voltage.
• Maximum Power Dissipation factor.
 When device operates with D.C signal, the boundary is A-B-C-D.
 During operation with D.C signal, a continuous power will
dissipated with-in device and junction temperature increases
significantly.
 A-B = It represents maximum drain current with drain to source
voltage less than 30 Volt.
 B-C= It represents that as the drain to source voltage increases
from 30 Volt, drain current has reduced as per boundary B-C. So
that the junction temperature will be less than the maximum value.
 C-D = It represents maximum voltage capability of power MOSFET.
•
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

• IGBT is a 3 terminal device in which collector and emitter is the

main terminal and gate is the control terminal.
• It is a fully controlled devise. It can be turned-on and turned-off by
control terminal.
• It is a voltage controlled devise. Control signal is gate-emitter
voltage.
• It is a unidirectional devise, current flow only in one direction.
• It has bipolar voltage blocking capability.
• It has positive temperature coefficient device.
• No secondary breakdown.
• It is a hybrid device of power BJT and power MOSFET.
• It can be connected for parallel operation.
Symbol of IGBT
IGBT Construction
Const. Details

• IGBT is made of four layers of semiconductor to form a PNPN

structure. The collector (C) electrode is attached to P layer while
the emitter (E) is attached between the P and N layers. A P+
substrate is used for the construction of IGBT. An N- layer is
placed on top of it to form PN junction J1. Two P regions are
fabricated on top of N- layer to form PN junction J2. The P region
is designed in such a way to leave a path in the middle for the
gate (G) electrode. N+ regions are diffused over the P region as
shown in the figure.
• The emitter and gate are metal electrodes. The emitter is directly
attached to the N+ region while the gate is insulated using a
silicon dioxide layer. The base P+ layer inject holes into N- layer
that is why it is called injector layer. While the N- layer is called
the drift region. Its thickness is proportional to voltage blocking
capacity. The P layer above is known as the body of IGBT.
Working Principal of IGBT

• The collector-emitter is connected to Vcc such that the collector is kept

at a positive voltage than the emitter. The junction j1 becomes forward
biased and j2 becomes reverse biased. At this point, there is no voltage
at the gate. Due to reverse j2, the IGBT remains switched off and no
current will flow between collector and emitter.
• Applying a gate voltage VG positive than the emitter, negative charges
will accumulate right beneath the SiO 2­ layer due to capacitance.
Increasing the VG increases the number of charges which eventually form
a layer when the VG exceeds the threshold voltage, in the upper P-
region. This layer form N-channel that shorts N- drift region and N+
region.
• The electrons from the emitter flow from N+ region into N- drift region.
While the holes from the collector are injected from the P+ region into
the N- drift region. Due to the excess of both electrons and holes in the
drift region, its conductivity increase and starts the conduction of
current. Hence the IGBT switches ON.
I-V Characteristic's of IGBT
I-V Description

• IGBT is a voltage-controlled device that requires only a small voltage

at its gate to control the collector current. However, the gate-emitter
voltage VGE needs to be greater than the threshold voltage.
• Transfer characteristics of the IGBT show the relation of input voltage
VGE to output collector current IC. When the VGE is 0v, there is no IC and
the device remains switched off. When the V GE is slightly increased but
remains below threshold voltage VGET, the device remains switched off
but there is a leakage current. When the V GE exceeds the threshold
limit, the I­C starts to increase and the device switches ON. Since it is a
unidirectional device, the current only flows in one direction.
• The given graph shows the relation between the collector current I C and
collector-emitter voltage VCE at different levels of VGE. At VGE < VGET the IGBT is
in cutoff mode and the IC = 0 at any VCE. At VGE > VGET, the IGBT goes into
active mode, where the IC increases with an increase in VCE. Furthermore, for
each VGE where VGE1 < VGE2 < VGE3, the IC is different.
• The reverse voltage should not exceed the reverse breakdown limit. So does
the forward voltage. If they exceed their respective breakdown limit,
uncontrolled current starts passing through it.
SWITCHING OF IGBT
Applications

.
• The IGBT is used in unregulated power supply (UPS) system.
• The IGBT is used to combines the simple gate-drive
characteristics of MOSFET with the high-current and low-
saturation-voltage of bipolar transistors.
• The IGBT is used in switched-mode power supplies (SMPS).

• It is used in inverters.
• The IGBT is used to combines an isolated-gate FET for the
control input and a bipolar power transistor as a switch in a
single device.
Advantages & Disadvantages

• Lower gate drive requirements

• Low switching losses
• Small snubber circuitry requirements
• High input impedance
• Voltage controlled device
• Temperature coefficient of ON state resistance is positive and
less than PMOSFET, hence less On-state voltage drop and
power loss.
• Enhanced conduction due to bipolar nature
• Better Safe Operating Area
• Cost
• Latching-up problem
• High turn off time compared to PMOSFET
 Module-3 Thyristor

• A thyristor is a four-layer device with alternating P-type and N-

type semiconductors (P-N-P-N).
• In its most basic form, a thyristor has three terminals: anode
(positive terminal), cathode (negative terminal), and gate
(control terminal). The gate controls the flow of current
between the anode and cathode.
• The primary function of a thyristor is to control electric power
and current by acting as a switch. For such a small and
lightweight component, it offers adequate protection to circuits
with large voltages and currents (up to 6000 V, 4500 A).
• In addition, its cost of maintenance is low and, operating under
the right conditions, remains functional in the long term
without developing a fault.
Group of Thyristors
Different Thyristors
• Thyristors are made of four layers of P and N-type material .
• The N-type material is created by doping an element with electrons to
increase the number of negative charge-carrying electrons. P-type
material is also produced through doping, although the resulting
charge-carrying electrons are positively charged. By alternating layers
of P- and N-type material, a semiconductor thyristor device is created.
Two differently charged terminals, the anode and cathode, carry the
charge from one end of the thyristor to the other.
• A third control terminal, often called the gate, connects to the P
material in close proximity to the cathode.
• SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier), LASCR, GTO, TRIAC, DIAC , GTO etc
are the Thyristor- family devices.
STRUCTURE OF THYRISTORS
Types & Description
• There are several kinds of thyristors for varying applications,
including: inverter, asymmetrical, and phase-control thyristors.
Other variants include gate turn-off thyristors and light-triggered
thyristors.
• Inverter Thyristors: Featuring fast turn-on and turn-off time,
inverter thyristors often operate with DC power supply and are
found in high-speed switching applications. Voltage is typically
varies as an inverse function of the turn-off time.
• Asymmetrical Thyristors: Asymmetrical thyristors do not
block substantial amounts of reverse current. Commonly
abbreviated ASCR, asymmetrical thyristors work well in
applications where the reverse voltage is relatively low, between
20 and 30 Volts (V), and where forward voltage is between 400
and 2000 V.
• Phase Control Thyristors: This type of thyristor does not have
fast-switching capabilities and instead operates at line
frequency. As a result, phase control thyristors are appropriate
for power frequency applications, such as DC drives, resistance
welding, and certain power transmission applications.
Types

• Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO): A gate turn-off (GTO) thyristor

is well-suited to applications with voltage over 2500 V or a
current over 400 A. it is important that all components of the
GTO are activated at the same time by the gate pulse; likewise
it is equally important that all components turn off at the
same time, otherwise the thyristor is at risk of becoming
overloaded and subsequently damaged.
• Light-Triggered Thyristors: Also called photothyristors, light-
triggered thyristors (LTTs) are specifically designed to react to
excess carriers that are optically produced. If enough carriers
are produced, the conditions are met to trigger the thyristor
and the thyristor turns on.
Thyristors
Mode Of operation

• A thyristor can assume the following states:

• Reverse blocking mode;
• Forward blocking mode;
• Forward conducting mode.
• Reverse blocking mode means voltage is applied in
a given direction that will cause a diode to block the
current.
• Forward blocking mode entails applying voltage in
a given direction that will cause a diode to conduct the
current, but the thyristor has not been activated yet,
and conduction cannot occur.
• Forward conducting mode occurs when voltage has
been applied and the thyristor has been triggered, thus
conducting voltage until the voltage dips below a point
known as the “holding current.”
Applications

• The main application of thyristors is to control high power

circuits.

• • They find applications in power supplies for digital circuits.

• • AC & DC motor speed controllers consist of thyristors.

• • A thyristor is also used in light dimmers.

SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier )

• SCR is the commonly used power semiconductor devices

available from few volts to several KV. And also current ratings
are few amps to several KA.
• SCRs are constructed from silicon and are most commonly used
for converting AC current to DC current (rectification), hence
the name Silicon controlled rectifier. They are also used in
other applications such as regulation of power, etc. The SCRs
have an ability to handle high value of current and Voltage.
• The current carrying capability of an SCR is solely determined by
the junction temperature. Except in case of surge currents, in no
other case the junction temperature is permitted to exceed the
permissible value.
Structure of SCR
Details of Structure

• The Symbol of the SCR will be similar to that of the diode,

additionally; it has a gate terminal as shown below. The SCR is
a unidirectional device that allows the current to flow in one
direction and opposes it in another direction. SCR has three
terminals namely Anode (A), Cathode (K) and gate (G), it can
be turned ON or OFF by controlling the biasing conditions or
the gate input.
Vertical Structure
Details

• Due to low doping the depletion layer width becomes wide

and provides high forward and reverse voltage blocking
capability. Turn-off and on-time losses increases as the
depletion layer width increases.
• Hence the switching speed of SCR is reduced with the increase
of width.
• For high speed operation, the width of depletion layer should
be reduced and impurity density of depletion layer should
increase.
• But the reverse voltage blocking capability and on-state
voltage drop gets reduced.
Working -Principal

• To understand the SCR working principle we have to look into

the different ways it can operate. Depending on the polarity of
the voltage applied and the gate pulse given to the SCR, it can
operate in three different modes such as
• Forward Blocking mode
• Forward Conduction mode
• Reverse Blocking mode.
•
OPERATION MODE
Forward Blocking Mode

• In this mode of operation, the positive voltage is applied to

the anode and the negative voltage applied to the cathode,
there will not be any pulse applied to the gate, it will be kept
in the open state. Once the voltage is applied, the junctions J1
and J3 will be forward biased and the junction J2 will be
reverse biased. Since J2 is reverse biased the width of the
depletion region increases and it acts as an obstacle for
conduction, so only a small amount of current will be flowing
from J1 to J3.
• When the voltage applied to the SCR is increased and if it
reaches the breakdown voltage of the SCR, the junction J2
gets depleted due to avalanche breakdown. Once
the Avalanche breakdown occurs the current will start flowing
through the SCR. In this mode of operation, the SCR is forward
biased, but, there will not be any current flow.
Forward Conduction Mode

• The Forward Conduction Mode is the only mode at which the SCR
will be in the ON state and will be conducting. We can make the
SCR conduct in two different ways, one we can increase the
applied forward bias voltage beyond the breakdown voltage or
else we can apply a positive voltage to the gate terminal.
• When we increase the Applied forward bias voltage between the
anode and cathode the junction J2 will be depleted due to the
avalanche breakdown and the SCR will start conducting. We are
not able to do this for all the applications and this method of
activating the SCR will eventually reduce the lifetime of the SCR.

• If you want to use the SCR for low voltage applications you can
apply a positive voltage to the gate of the SCR. The applied
positive voltage will help the SCR to move to the conduction
state. During this mode of operation, the SCR will be operating in
forward bias and current will be flowing through it.
Reverse Blocking Mode
• In the reverse blocking mode, the positive voltage is applied to
the Cathode (-) and the Negative voltage is given to the Anode
(+), There will not be any pulse given to the gate, it will be kept
as an open circuit. During this mode of operation the Junctions
J1 and J3 will be reverse biased and the junction J2 will be
forward biased. Since the junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased
there will not be any current flowing through the SCR. Although
there will be a small leakage current flowing due to the drift
charge carriers in the forward-biased Junction J2, it is not
enough to turn on the SCR.
I-V characteristics of SCR
SCR RATINGS

• There are different ratings that are specified by the device

manufacturers and they are available in SCR manuals.The designer
must make use of this data in order to select a device which has
adequate ratings.The specified ratings should not be exceeded in
order to operate SCR reliably. In this section some of the important
ratings have been discussed.
• Latching Current (IL): Latching current IL is the minimum anode
current required to maintain thyristor in ON state immediately
after thyristor has been Turn ON and the gate signal has been
removed
• Holding Current (IH): Minimum anode current below which
device stop conducting and return to its off state usually this value
is very small in mA.
• Forward Breakdown Voltage (VBO): If anode to cathode voltage
VAK is increase to sufficient large value, the reverse bias junction J2
breaks this is known as Avalanche Breakdown and corresponding
voltage is called as forward breakdown voltage VBO.
Ratings

• dv/dt: dv/dt rating of thyristor indicates maximum rate of rise of anode voltage
that will not trigger the device without any gate signal.
• di/dt: di/dt rating of thyristor indicates maximum rate of rise of anode to
cathode current.
• Surge Current: It specifies the maximum allowable non repetitive current
the device can withstand. The device is assumed to be operating under rated
blocking voltage, forward current and junction temperature before the surge
current occurs. Following the surge the device should be disconnected from the
circuit and allowed to cool down. Surge currents are assumed to be sine waves
of power frequency with a minimum duration of ½ cycles. Manufacturers
provide at least three different surge current ratings for different durations.
• Gate current to trigger (IGT): Minimum value of the gate current
below which reliable turn on of the thyristor cannot be guaranteed.
Usually specified at a given forward break over voltage.
• Gate voltage to trigger (VGT): Minimum value of the gate cathode
forward voltage below which reliable turn on of the thyristor cannot be
guaranteed. It is specified at the same break over voltage as IGT .
Rating
DESCRIPTION
Triggering of SCR

• The SCR can be made to conduct or switched from blocking (non-

conducting or OFF) state to Conduction (ON) State by any one of the
following methods.

• Forward Voltage Triggering

• Temperature Triggering
• dv/dt Triggering
• Light Triggering
• Gate Triggering
• Forward Voltage Triggering
• In forward voltage triggering method, the SCR is forward
biased i.e., anode is more positive than cathode but this
voltage is increased significantly. The gate terminal is kept
open.
• As the voltage increases, junction J2‘s depletion layer width
increases, which in turn increases the accelerating-voltage of
minority carriers at this junction. At a particular voltage, there
will be an Avalanche Breakdown at the inner junction J2 as a
result of minority charge carriers colliding with atoms and
releasing even more minority charge carriers.
• This voltage is known as Forward Breakover Voltage VBO. At
this voltage, the junction J2 becomes forward biased and the
SCR turns into conduction state. A large current flows through
the SCR (from Anode to Cathode, which is limited by the load
resistance) with a very low voltage drop across it.
Temperature Triggering
• By increasing the temperature at junction J2, the width of the
depletion layer decreases. So, when the forward bias voltage is
near to VBO, we can turn ON the SCR by increasing the junction
temperature (J2). At a particular temperature, the reverse bias
of the junction breaks down an the device starts to conduct.
• This triggering occur in some circumstances particularly when
it the device temperature is more (also called false triggering).
This type of triggering is practically not employed because it
causes the thermal runaway and hence the device or SCR may
be damaged.
•
dv/dt Triggering

• In forward blocking state i.e., anode is more positive than

cathode, the junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and the
junction J2 is reverse biased. So, the junction J2 behaves as a
capacitor (J1 and J3 as conducting plates with a dielectric J2)
due to the space charges in the depletion region.
• The charging current of the capacitor is given as:
• IC = dQ / dt
• = d(Cj v) / dt
• Using Product Rule of Differentiation, we get-
• = Cj dv / dt + v dCj / dt
• As the junction Capacitance is always almost constant, we can
ignore the rate of change of junction Capacitance dCj / dt. So,
the final Charging Current is:
• IC = Cj dv/ dt
Triggering

• where, IC is the Charging Current

• Cj is the Junction Capacitance
• Q is the charge
• v is the voltage applied across the device
• dCj / dt is the rate of change of junction Capacitance
• dv / dt is the rate of change of applied voltage
• From the above equation, if the rate of change of the applied
voltage is large (i.e., it is applied suddenly), then the flow of
charging current will increase, which causes the SCR to turn on
without any gate voltage.
•
Light Triggering

• If a light signal is given to the SCR junction, then it produces ample

energy to split the pairs of electron-hole within the semiconductor, so
that the SCR will be activated.

• Once the applied light’s intensity is enhanced above a nominal value,

then the SCR will begin to conduct. It is not a simple method so it is not
used regularly. This kind of triggering is mainly utilized in HVDC
Transmission Lines.
Gate- Triggering
• Gate triggering most commonly used triggering technique for SCR.
When a positive voltage is applied in between two terminals like gate
(G) & cathode (K) then it can switch ON a thyristor in forward
biased.
Once a positive voltage is provided at the gate terminal, then charge
carriers will be injected within the P-layer thus reduces the width of
the depletion layer.
• When the applied voltage enhances, then automatically carrier
injection will be increased, so the voltage will decrease at which
forward break-over take place. For gate triggering, there are mainly
three types of signals used to like DC gate, AC gate, and pulse gate.
A.C Triggering

• AC triggering is the most frequently used technique for triggering

the SCR, particularly in the applications of AC. With appropriate
isolation among the two control & power circuits through
transformers, the silicon-controlled rectifier can be triggered with
the phase-shift AC voltage which is derived from the major
suppliers. The controlling of firing angle can be done by altering the
gate signal’s phase angle.
• But, simply one part of the cycle is obtainable for driving the gate to
control the firing angle & for the remaining part of the cycle; a
reverse voltage can be provided in between the two terminals like
the gate & cathode.
• AC triggering is classified into two types like resistance and RC
triggering.
R-C Triggering
R-C Triggering (Description)

• The resistance-capacitance triggering circuit is shown . This technique

is used to attain a firing angle above 90°. In the primary half cycle, the
capacitor gets charged using the variable resistance ‘R’ up to the
climax value of the voltage applied.

• This resistor controls the capacitor’s charging time. The starts

triggering based on the voltage across the capacitor and when enough
quantity of gate current supplies within the circuit. The capacitor in
the second half cycle is charged up toward the negative crest value
using the two diodes D1 &. D2. In this cycle, these diodes are used to
avoid the gate cathode junction’s reverse breakdown.
Pulse Triggering

• In this technique, a single pulse is applied to the gate otherwise

number of pulses with high frequency. The main benefit of this
technique is that gate drive is not continuous to turn ON the SCR &
thus gate losses are decreased in larger amounts through providing
single otherwise periodically appearing signals. Here, a pulse
transformer is mainly used to separate the gate drive from the main
supply.
Switching Characteristics (SCR )
Switching characteristics of SCR - ( Turn-on )

• A forward biased thyristor can be turned on by

applying a positive voltage between gate and cathode
terminal. But it takes some transition time to go from
forward blocking mode to forward conduction mode.
This transition time is called turn on time of SCR and
it can be subdivided into three small intervals as delay
time (td) rise time(tr), spread time(ts).
• Delay Time of SCR-
• After application of gate current, the thyristor will start
conducting over a very tiny region. Delay time of SCR
can be defined as the time taken by the gate current to
increase from 90% to 100% of its final value Ig. From
another point of view, delay time is the interval in
which anode current rises from forward leakage
current to 10% of its final value and at the same time
anode voltage will fall from 100% to 90% of its initial
value Va.
ON - SWITCHING

• Rise Time of SCR

• Rise time of SCR in the time taken by the anode current to rise
from 10% to 90% of its final value. At the same time anode voltage
will fall from 90% to 10% of its initial value Va.
• The phenomenon of decreasing anode voltage and increasing anode
current is entirely dependent upon the type of the load.
• For example if we connect a inductive load, voltage will fall in a
faster rate than the current increasing. This is happened because
induction does not allow initially high voltage change through it.
• On the other hand if we connect a capacitive load it does not allow
initial high voltage change through it, hence current increasing rate
will be faster than the voltage falling rate.
• High increasing rate of dia/dt can create local hot spot in the device
which is not suitable for proper operation. So, it is better to use a
inductor in series with the device to tackle high dia/dt. Usually, the
value of the maximum allowable di/dt is in the range of 20 to 200 A
per microsecond.
ON - SWITCHING
• Spread Time of SCR
• It is the time taken by the anode current to rise from
90% to 100% of its final value. At the same time the
anode voltage decreases from 10% of its initial value
to smallest possible value. In this interval of time
conduction spreads all over the area of cathode and
the SCR will go to fully ON State. Spread time of
SCR depends upon the cross-sectional area of
cathode.
Switching – (Turn-off )
• Once the thyristor is switched on or in other point of view, the anode
current is above latching current, the gate losses control over it. That
means gate circuit cannot turn off the device. For turning off the SCR
anode current must fall below the holding current.
• After anode current fall to zero we cannot apply forward voltage across
the device due to presence of carrier charges into the four layers.
• So turn off time of SCR can be defined as the interval between anode
current falls to zero and device regains its forward blocking mode.
• On the basis of removing carrier charges from the four layers, turn off
time of SCR can be divided into two time regions,

1.Reverse Recovery Time.

2.Gate Recovery Time
Off – Switching

• Reverse –Recovery Time

• It is the interval in which change carriers remove from J1, and J3
junction. At time t1, anode current falls to zero and it will continue to
increase in reverse direction with same slope (di/dt) of the forward
decreasing current.
• This negative current will help to sweep out the carrier charges from
junction J1 and J3. At the time t2 carrier charge density is not
sufficient to maintain the reverse current hence after t2 this negative
current will start to decrease.
• The value of current at t2 is called reverse recovery current. Due to
rapid decreasing of anode current, a reverse spike of voltage may
appear across the SCR.
OFF - SWITCHING

• After sweeping out the carrier charges from junction J1

and J3 during reverse recovery time, there still remain
trapped charges in J2 junction which prevent the SCR
from blocking the forward voltage. This trapped charge
can be removed by recombination only and the interval
in which this recombination is done, called gate
recovery time.
PROTECTION OF THYRISTOR
• Reliable operation of a thyristor demands that its specified ratings are not
exceeded. There are two types of protection required:
1. dv/dt Protection
• If the rate of rise of suddenly applied voltage across thyristor is high, the
device may get turned on. It leads to false operation of the thyristor circuits.
• Typical values of dv/dt are 20-500 V/μ-sec.
• False turn-on of a thyristor by large dv/dt can be prevented by using a
snubber circuit in parallel with the device.
2. di/dt Protection
• If the rate of rise of anode current, i.e. di/dt is large as compared to the
spread velocity of carriers, local hot spots will be formed near the gate
connection. This localized heating my destroy the thyristor.
• The value of di/dt can be maintained below acceptable limit by using
a small inductor, called di/dt inductor in series with the anode circuit.
• Typical di/dt limit value of SCRs are 20-500 A/μ-sec.
SCR Protection

DIFFERENT TYPE OF PROTECTIONS

Over Voltage protection - Varistor (Voltage Dependent Resistor)

Over Current Protection- Circuit Breaker. ( Over load )
Fast Acting current limiting Fuse ( Short circuit ). (silver)

Thermal Protection= (Heat sinks ) (Measurable limit 150 deg

centrigrade)

protection - ( Snubber circuit )

protection ( Series Inductor )

Gate protection ( resistor, shunt resistor , zener Diode , Capacitor )

Protection necessity

• Large and local heating of SCR.

• False triggering may occur due to dv\ dt .

• Presence of noise signal at the cathode terminal. ( High Frequency )

• Increase of Temperature at the junction ( 150 deg centigrade).

Protection Circuit
SCR PROTECTION ( OVER – VOLTAGE )

• Over Voltage Protection

• It is the most important protection scheme w. r. t. others as thyristors
are very sensitive to over voltages. Maximum time thyristor failures
happen due to over-voltage transients.
• A thyristor may be subjected to internal or external over-voltages.
• Internal Over-Voltages : After commutation of a thyristor reverse
recovery current decays abruptly with high di/dt which causes a high
reverse voltage [as, V = L(di/dt) so if di/dt is high then V will be
large] that can exceed the rated break-over voltage and the device
may be damaged.
• External Over-Voltages : These are caused due to various reasons in
the supply line like lightning, surge conditions (abnormal voltage
spike) etc. External over voltage may cause different types of
problem in thyristor operation like increase in leakage current,
permanent breakdown of junctions, unwanted turn-on of devices etc.
So, we have to suppress the over-voltages.
SCR PROTECTION ( OVER – CURRENT )

• Over Current Protection

• Overcurrent mainly occurs due to different types of faults in the
circuit. Due to overcurrent i2R loss will increase and high generation
of heat may take place that can exceed the permissible limit and burn
the device.

• Protective Measure: SCR can be protected from overcurrent by using

Circuit Breaker (CB) and fast acting current limiting fuses (FACLF).
CBs are used for protection of thyristor against continuous overloads
or against surge currents of long duration as a CB has long tripping
time. But fast-acting fuses is used for protecting SCR against high
surge current of very short duration.
High dv/dt Protection

• When a thyristor is in forward blocking state then only J2 junction is

reverse biased which acts as a capacitor having constant capacitance
value Cj (junction capacitance). As we know that current through
capacitor follows the relation

• Hence leakage current through the J2 junction which is nothing but

the leakage current through the device will increase with the increase
in dv/dt i.e. rate of change of applied voltage across the thyristor. This
current can turn-on the device even when the gate signal is absent.
This is called dv/dt triggering and must be avoided which can be
achieved by using Snubber circuit in parallel with the device.
High di/dt Protection

• When a thyristor is turned on by gate pulse then charge carriers

spread through its junction rapidly. But if rate of rise of anode
current, i.e. di/dt is greater than the spreading of charge carriers then
localized heat generation will take place which is known as local hot
spots. This may damage the thyristor.
• Protective Measure: To avoid local hot spots we use an inductor in
series with the device as it prevents high rate of change of current
through it.
High Temperature Protection

• With the increase in the temperature of the junction, insulation may

get failed. So we have to take proper measures to limit the
temperature rise.
• Protective Measure: We can achieve this by mounting the thyristor
on heat sink which is mainly made by high thermal conductivity
metals like aluminum (Al), Copper (Cu) etc. Mainly aluminum (Al)
is used due to its low cost. There are several types of mounting
techniques for SCR such as – Lead-mounting, stud-mounting, Bolt-
down mounting, press-fit mounting, press-pack mounting etc.
SNUBBER CIRCUIT

• Snubbers are the energy absorbing circuits used to smooth the

voltage spikes caused due to the circuit’s inductance. Sometimes, due
to the overcurrent, overvoltage and overheating the component gets
fail. So, for the overcurrent protection of the circuit we use fuses at
suitable locations and for overheating we use heat sinks or fans.

• Snubber circuits are used for limiting the rate of change in voltage or
current (di/dt or dv/dt) and overvoltage during turning ON and OFF
the circuit. A Snubber circuit is the combination of resistors and
capacitors connected in series across the switch like transistor or
Thyristor for the protection as well as for improving performance.
CIRCUIT
Working of Snubber
• When switch S is closed, a sudden voltage appears across the circuit.
• Initially capacitor behaves like a short –circuit path and hence
voltage across SCR is zero.
• But as time passes, voltage starts building-up across capacitor C
with a slow rate.
• Thus the rate of voltage dv\dt across SCR terminals will be slow
and less than the specified dv\dt rating of SCR.
• Role of Resistance
• Before SCR is triggered by gate pulse, the capacitor is fully charged
to supply voltage V.
• When the SCR is turned-on by gate-pulse, this charged capacitor
discharges through SCR.
• This may lead to high value of di/dt rating of SCR.
• In order to limit the magnitude of discharge current , resistance
should be connected in series with the capacitor.
Heat-sink , Thermal – Resistance , MOV

• Heat-sink-
• Heat sink is an electronic component or a device of an
electronic circuit which disperses heat from other components (mainly
from the power transistors) of a circuit into the surrounding medium
and cools them for improving their performance, reliability and also
avoids the premature failure of the components. For the cooling
purpose, it incorporates a fan or cooling device.
• The heat generated by the SCR must be dissipated, thus, all
controllers have some means to cool the SCR's. Typically an aluminum
heat-sink, with fins to increase the surface area, is used to dissipate this
energy to air.
SCR Protection- (MOV)

• Metal Oxide Varistor or MOV is a voltage dependent, nonlinear

device that provides excellent transient voltage suppression.
• The Metal Oxide Varistor is designed to protect various types of
electronic devices and semiconductor elements from switching and
induced lightning surges.
• A metal oxide varistor absorbs potentially destructive energy and
dissipates it as heat, thus protecting vulnerable circuit
components and preventing system damage. Varistors can absorb
part of a surge.
Series & Parallel operation of SCR

• SCRs are available of ratings up to 10 KV and 3 KA. But sometimes

we face demand, more than these ratings. In this case combination of
more than one SCRs is used.
• Series connection of SCRs meets high voltage demand and
parallel connection of SCRs meets high current demand.
• These series and parallel connection of SCR or Thyristor will work
efficiently if all SCRs are fully utilized. Although all SCRs in a string
are of same rating, their V-I characteristics differ from one another.
• This leads to unequal voltage or current division among them.
Hence every SCR is not fully utilized. So the efficiency of string is
always less than 100% .
SERIES & PARALLEL OPERATION
SERIES- PARALLEL SCR

• With increase in the numbers of SCRs in a string voltage or current

handled by each SCR is minimized. This phenomenon increases the
reliability of the string, but reduces the utilization of each SCR.
• Thus string efficiency decreases. Reliability of string is measured by
derating factor (DRF) which is given by the expression

• DRF= 1- String Efficiency

Series Connection of SCR

• When the operating voltage is more than the rating of one SCR the
multiple SCRs of same ratings are used in series.
• As we know SCR’s having same rating, may have different I-V
characteristic, so unequal voltage division is bound to take place. For
example if two SCRs in series that is capable of blocking 5 KV
individually, then the string should block 10 KV.
• But practically this does not happen. This can be verified with the help
of an example.
• Let the characteristics of two SCRs are as shown in fig.
• Voltage across SCR1 is V1 but that across SCR2 is V2. V2 is much less
than V1. So, SCR2 is not fully utilized. Hence the string can block V 1 +
V2 = 8 KV, rather than 10 KV and the string efficiency is given by =
80%.
STATIC EQUALIZING CIRCUIT

• To improve the efficiency a resistor in parallel with

every SCR is used. The value of these resistances are
such that the equivalent resistance of each SCR and
resistor pair will be same. Hence this will ensure
equal voltage division across each SCR.
• This resistance b is called static equalizing circuit.
STATIC EQUALIZING CIRCUIT
• But in practical different rating of resistor is very difficult to use. So
we chose one value of resistance to get optimum result which is
given by-
• R=
• Where, n = no. of SCR in the string
Vbm = Voltage blocked by the SCR having minimum leakage current.
ΔIb = Difference between maximum and minimum leakage current
flowing through SCRs.
Vs = Voltage across the string.
Dynamic EQUALIZATION

• In these transient conditions, to maintain the equal volume across

each device a capacitor is used along with resistor in parallel with
every SCR. This is nothing but snubber ckt which also known as
dynamic equalizing circuit. An additional diodes can also be used to
improve the performance of dynamic equalizing circuit.
Parallel Connection of SCR
• When the load current exceeds the SCR current rating, SCRs are
connected in parallel to share the load current. But when SCRs are
operated in parallel, the current sharing between them may not be
proper.
• The device having lower dynamic resist­ance will tend to share more
current.
Parallel operation
Parallel operation of SCR
Parallel operation of SCR
PARALLEL SCR
PARALLEL SCR
SCR Parallel operation
SCR Parallel
SCR parallel
SCR Parallel
Commutation of Thyristor

• Commutation of SCR is defined as the process of turning off an

SCR / thyristor. It is the process by which an SCR or thyristor is
brought to OFF state from ON state.
• There are mainly two techniques for Thyristor Commutation: Natural
and Forced. The Forced commutation technique is further divided
into five categories which are Class A, B, C, D, and E.
• Below is the Classification:
• Natural Commutation ( A.C voltage controller, cyclo-converter )
• Forced Commutation ( chopper , Inverter )
• Class A: Self or Load Commutation
• Class B: Resonant-Pulse Commutation
• Class C: Complementary Commutation
• Class D: Impulse Commutation
• Class E: External Pulse Commutation
Natural Commutation

• Natural Commutation occurs only in AC circuits, and it is named so

because it doesn’t require any external circuit. When a positive cycle
reaches to zero and the anode current is zero, immediately a reverse
voltage (negative cycle) is applied across the Thyristor which causes
the Thyristor to turn OFF.
• A Natural Commutation occurs in AC Voltage Controllers,
Cycloconverters, and Phase Controlled Rectifier.
Forced Commutation
• As there is no natural zero current in DC Circuits like as natural
commutation. So, Forced Commutation is used in DC circuits and it
is also called as DC commutation.

• It requires commutating elements like inductance and capacitance to

forcefully reduce the anode current of the Thyristor below the
holding current value, that’s why it is called as Forced
Commutation.

• Mainly forced commutation is used in Chopper and Inverters

circuits. Forced commutation is divided into five categories, which
are explained below.
CLASS-A Self / Load Commutation
CLASS-A

• Class A is also called as “Self-Commutation” and it is one of the

most used technique among all Thyristor commutation technique. In
the circuit, the inductor, capacitor and resistor form a second order
under damp circuit.
• When it start supplying the input voltage to the circuit the Thyristor
will not turn ON, as it requires a gate pulse to turn ON. Now when
the Thyristor turns ON or forward biased, the current will flow
through the inductor and charges the capacitor to its peak value or
equal to the input voltage.
• Now, as the capacitor gets fully charged, inductor polarity gets
reversed and inductor starts opposing the flow of current. Due to
this, the output current starts to decrease and reach to zero. At this
moment the current is below the holding current of the Thyristor, so
the Thyristor turns OFF.
CLASS-B Resonant Pulse Commutation
Class-B

• Class B commutation is also called as Resonant-Pulse Commutation.

There is only a small change between Class B and Class A circuit. In
class B LC resonant circuit is connected in parallel while in Class A it’s in
series.
• Now, applying the input voltage, the capacitor starts charging upto the
input voltage (Vs) and Thyristor remains reversed biased until the gate
pulse is applied. When we apply the gate pulse, the Thyristor turns ON
and now the current start flowing from both the ways. But, then the
constant load current flows through the resistance and inductance
connected in series, due to its large reactance.
• Then a sinusoidal current flow through the LC resonant circuit to charge
the capacitor with the reverse polarity. Hence, a reverse voltage appears
across the Thyristor, which causes the current Ic (commutating current) to
oppose the flow of the anode current IA. Therefore, due to this opposing
commutating current, when the anode current is getting lesser than the
holding current, Thyristor turns OFF.
CLASS-C Complementary Commutation
CLASS-C

• Class C commutation is also called as Complementary Commutation.

As you can see the circuit below, there are two Thyristor in parallel,
one is main and another is auxiliary.
• Initially, both the Thyristor are in OFF condition and the voltage
across capacitor is also zero.
• Now, as the gate pulse is applied to the main Thyristor, the current
will start flowing from two paths, one is from R1-T1 and second is
R2-C-T1. Hence, the capacitor also starts charging to the peak value
equal to the input voltage with the polarity of plate B positive and
plate A negative.
• Now, as the gate pulse is applied to the Thyristor T2, it turns ON and
a negative polarity of current appear across the Thyristor T1 which
cause T1 to get turn OFF. And, the capacitor starts charging with the
reverse polarity.
• Simply we can say that when T1 turns ON it turns OFF T2 and
as T2 turns ON it turns OFF T1.
Class-D Impulse Commutation
Class-D Impulse Commutation

• Class D commutation is also called as Impulse Commutation or

Voltage Commutation. As Class C, Class D commutation circuit also
consists of two Thyristor T1 and T2 and they are named as main and
auxiliary respectively. Here, diode, inductor, and auxiliary Thyristor
form the commutation circuit.
• Initially, both the Thyristor are in OFF state and voltage across
capacitor C is also zero. Now as we apply the input voltage and
trigger the Thyristor T1 the load current starts flowing through it.
And, the capacitor starts charging with polarity of plate A negative
and plate B positive.
• Now, as we trigger the auxiliary Thyristor T2, the main Thyristor T1
turns OFF and the capacitor starts charging with the opposite
polarity. When it gets full-charged, it causes the auxiliary Thyristor
T2 to turn OFF, because a capacitor does not allow the flow of
current through it when it gets fully charged.
• Therefore, the output current will also be zero because at this stage
because of both the Thyristors are in OFF state.
CLASS E External pulse Commutation
Class E

• Class E commutation is also called External Pulse Commutation.

From the circuit diagram, the Thyristor is already in forward bias.
So, as it trigger the Thyristor, the current will appear at the load.
• The capacitor in the circuit is used for the dv/dt protection of the
Thyristor and the pulse transformer is used to turn OFF the Thyristor.
• Now, when giving pulse through the pulse transformer an opposite
current will flow in the direction of the cathode. This opposite
current oppose the flow of the anode current and if IA – IP <
IH Thyristor will turn OFF.
• Where IA is Anode current, IP is pulse current and IH is holding
current.
GTO
• A Gate Turn off Thyristor or GTO is a three terminal, bipolar
(current controlled minority carrier) semiconductor switching device.
Similar to conventional thyristor, the terminals are anode, cathode
and gate. As the name indicates, it has gate turn off capability.

• These are capable not only to turn ON the main current with a gate
drive circuit, but also to turn it OFF. A small positive gate current
triggers the GTO into conduction mode and also by a negative pulse
on the gate, it is capable of being turned-off.
GTO
• The gate current required to turn off the GTO is relatively high. For
example, a GTO rated with 4000V and 3000A may need -750A gate
current to switch it off.
• So the typical turn off gain of GTO is low and is in the range of 4 to 5.
Due to this large negative current, GTOs are used in low power
applications.
On the other hand, during the conduction state GTO behaves just like a
thyristor with a small ON state voltage drop.
• The GTO has faster switching speed than the thyristor and has higher
voltage and current ratings than the power transistors.
Concepts of Rectifiers

• An electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in

one direction and high resistance to the current in opposite direction
called Rectifier.
• These devices is capabale-off converting a sinusoidal voltage (input )
whose average value is zero,into unidirectional wave-form with non-
zero quantity.(Avg. component).
• It converts a A.C inputs in pulsating D.C outputs.

• Filters are connected at output to remove harmonics and reduce

fluctuation in output.
• Voltage- Regulator is used to take the filter output to make it a
perfect D.C wave-form.
Rectifiers
Rectifier Classifiactions
• Rectifier circuits are basically of two types depending on the
alternating voltage they take as input. They are:
• (a) Single phase rectifiers
• (b) Polyphase rectifiers
• Rectifiers may be classified in to two categories depending upon the
period of conduction. They are
• (a) Half-wave rectifiers
• (b) Full–wave rectifiers
• Full wave rectifiers may further be classified in to two categories
depending upon nature of the circuit connection. They are
• (a) Centre tapped full-wave rectifier
• (b) Bridge full-wave rectifier
Classifications
Classification

• When diodes are used in ac-dc converter circuits, then they are called
uncontrolled diode.
• When either positive or negative cycle voltage is applied to the load ,is
known as half-wave converter.
• When both positive or negative voltage is applied to the load, then it is
called full-wave rectifier.
Phase Controlled Rectifier
• The term PCR or Phase controlled rectifier is a one type of rectifier
circuit in which the diodes are switched by Thyristors
or SCRs (Silicon Controlled Rectifiers).
• Whereas the diodes offer no control over the o/p voltage, the
Thyristors can be used to differ the output voltage by adjusting the
firing angle or delay.
• A phase control Thyristor is activated by applying a short pulse to its
gate terminal and it is deactivated due to line communication or
natural.
• In case of heavy inductive load, it is deactivated by firing another
Thyristor of the rectifier during the negative half cycle of i/p voltage.
Controlled Rectifier
Types of PCR
• Single-phase Controlled Rectifier
• This type of rectifier which works from single phase AC i/p power
supply.
• Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers are classified into different types
• Half wave Controlled Rectifier: This type of rectifier uses a single
Thyristor device to provide o/p control only in one half cycle of input
AC supply, and it offers low DC output.
• Full wave Controlled Rectifier: This type of rectifier provides higher
DC output
• Full wave PCR with a center tapped transformer requires two Thyristors.
• Full wave bridge controlled rectifiers do not need a center tapped
transformer
Single-phase full wave and half-wave PCR
Three phase PCR
• This type of rectifier which works from three phase AC i/p power supply.
• A semi converter is a one quadrant converter that has one polarity of o/p
voltage and current.
• A full converter is a a two quadrants converter that has polarity of o/p
voltage can be either +ve or –ve but, the current can have only one polarity
that is either +ve or -ve.
• Dual converter works in four quadrants – both o/p voltage and o/p current
can have both the polari
Three phase controlled Rectifier
Applications of PCR

• Phase controlled rectifier applications include paper mills, textile mills

using DC motor drives and DC motor control in steel mills.
• AC fed traction system using a DC traction motor.
• Electro-metallurgical and Electrochemical processes.
• Reactor controls.
• Magnet power supplies.
• Portable hand instrument drives.
• Flexible speed industrial drives.
• Battery charges. 
• High voltage DC transmission. 
• UPS (Uninterruptible power supply systems).
Single PCR
Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier
As shown in figure below primary of transformer is connected to ac
mains supply with which SCR
becomes forward bias in positive half cycle. T1 is triggered at an angle α,
T1 conducts and voltage is
applied across R.
Single PCR
• The load current i0 flows through ‘R’
• the waveforms for voltage & current are as shown above.
• As load is resistive,
• Output current is given as, I=
• Hence shape of output current is same as output voltage
• As T1 conducts only in positive half cycle as it is reversed bias in
negative cycle, the ripple frequency of
• output voltage is-
• fripple= 50 Hz (supply frequency).
• Average output voltage is given as-
• V0 (Avg)=
• i.e Area under one cycle.
• Therefore T=2π&Vo(ωt) = Vm sinωt from α to π& for rest of the period
Vo(ωt)=0
Single PCR

• V0 (Avg)= = = [1+cos]

• Power transferred to load,

• P0 (Avg)=
• Thus, power & voltage can be controlled by firing angle.
Single PCR

• Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with ‘RL’ load

Single PCR (half controlled)
• Figure above shows the single phase half wave rectifier with RL Load.
• Normally motors are inductive loads
• L= armature of field coil inductance
• R= Resistance of coil.
• In positive half cycle, SCR starts conduction at firing angle “α”.
• Drop across SCR is small & neglected so output voltage is equal to supply voltage.
• Due to ‘RL’ load, current through SCR increases slowly.
• At ‘π’, supply voltage is at zero where load current is at its max value.
• In positive half cycle, inductor stores energy & that generates the voltage.
• In negative half cycle, the voltage developed across inductor, forward biases SCR &
maintains its
• conduction.
• Basically with the property of inductance it opposes change in current.
• Output current & supply current flows in same loop, so all the time io=is
• . After π the energy of inductor is given to mains & there is flow of ‘io’. The energy
reduces as if gets
• consumed by circuit so current also reduces.
• At ‘β’ energy stored in inductance is finished, hence ‘io’ becomes zero & ‘T1’ turns
off.
• ‘io’ becomes zero from ‘β’ to ‘2π+α’ hence it is discontinuous conduction.
Single PCR

• The average output voltage ,

• V0 (Avg)= = = [cos – cos ]

• The average output Current, -

• I0 (Avg)= [cos – cos ]
• RMS load voltage,
• VRMS = }^1/2 = = [(]^1/2
Single PCR

• Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with ‘R’ load:

Full- Wave PCR
Single full-wave PCR with R load
• The single phase fully controlled rectifier allows conversion of single phase
AC into DC. Normally this
• is used in various applications such as battery charging, speed control of DC
motors and front end of UPS
• (Uninterruptible Power Supply) and SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply).
• • All four devices used are Thyristors. The turn-on instants of these devices
are dependent on the firing
• signals that are given. Turn-off happens when the current through the device
reaches zero and it is reverse
• biased at least for duration equal to the turn-off time of the device specified
in the data sheet.
• • In positive half cycle Thyristors T1 & T2 are fired at an angle α .
• • When T1 & T2 conducts
• Vo=Vs
• IO=is=Vo/R=Vs/R
• • In negative half cycle of input voltage, SCR’s T3 &T4 are triggered at an
angle of (π+α)
• • Here output current & supply current are in opposite direction
Single full-wave PCR with R load
• ∴ is=-io
• T3 & T4 becomes off at 2π.
• V0 (Avg)= )= = cos
Single phase Full-wave PCR
• Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with ‘RL’ load:
Single Full-wave PCR with R-L Load waveforms
Single full-wave PCR
• Mode 1 (α toπ)
• • In positive half cycle of applied ac signal, SCR’s T1 & T2 are forward bias & can be
turned on at an
• angle α.
• • Load voltage is equal to positive instantaneous ac supply voltage. The load current is
positive, ripple
• free, constant and equal to Io.
• • Due to positive polarity of load voltage & load current, load inductance will store
energy.
• Mode 2 (π toπ+α)
• • At wt=π, input supply is equal to zero & after π it becomes negative. But inductance
opposes any
• change through it.
• • In order to maintain a constant load current & also in same direction. A self
inducedemf appears across ‘L’ as shown.
• • Due to this induced voltage, SCR’s T1 & T2 are forward bais in spite the negative
supply voltage.
• • The load voltage is negative & equal to instantaneous ac supply voltage whereas
load current is positive.
• • Thus, load acts as source & stored energy in inductance is returned back to the ac
supply.
Single full-wave PCR
• Mode 3 (π+α to 2π)
• • At wt=π+α SCR’s T3 & T4 are turned on & T1, T2 are reversed bias.
• • Thus , process of conduction is transferred from T1,T2 to T3,T4.
• • Load voltage again becomes positive & energy is stored in inductor
• • T3, T4 conduct in negative half cycle from (π+α) to 2π
• • With positive load voltage & load current energy gets stored.

• Mode 4 (2π to 2π+α)

• • At wt=2π, input voltage passes through zero.
• • Inductive load will try to oppose any change in current if in order to
maintain load current constant & in
• the same direction.
• • Induced emf is positive & maintains conducting SCR’s T3 & T4 with
reverse polarity also.
Single full-wave PCR
• Thus VL is negative & equal to instantaneous ac supply voltage. Whereas
load current continues to be
• positive.
• • Thus load acts as source & stored energy in inductance is returned back
to ac supply
• • At wt=α or 2π+α, T3 & T4 are commutated and T1,T2 are turned on.
• V0 (Avg)= )= = cos
Firing- Angel) & Extinction-Angel
• The principal characteristic of the circuit is that the current is not in phase
with the voltage. This fact is due to the inductive component of the load.
The firing pulse is applied to the gate of thyristor (trigger pin) at instant
defined as α. It remains in the ON state until the load current tries to go to a
negative value. This instant is defined as angle extinction β.
Firing of SCR
Some Derived Expression
Some Derived Expression
Some Derived Expression
Some Derived Expression
Some Derived Expression
Some Derived Expression
Freewheeling diode in Phase controlled Rectifier
• A freewheeling diode placed across the inductive load will provide a path
for the release of energy stored in the inductor while the load voltage
drops to zero.
• The freewheeling diode prevents the load voltage from becoming
negative.
• Whenever load voltage tends to go negative, FD comes into play.
• As a result the main current is transferred from the main thyristor to free
wheeling diode allowing the thyristor to regain its voltage blocking
capability.
Freewheeling Diode
Advantages - FWD
Advantages

• 1) Increase DC voltage for a given firing angle due to the elimination of

negative portions of the instantaneous dc waveform in a SCR phase
controlled converter,
• 2) Will reduce the generated ripple voltage on the DC side of a SCR phase
controlled converter due to same reason as in above, reducing the filtering
requirements.
• 3) Will improve the input Power Factor in an SCR phase controlled
converter due to ending the input current waveform earlier by permitting
internal free-wheeling.
• 4. Improve Rectification efficiency.
• 5. Prominent wave-shape of voltage or current we obtain.
Three phase phase-controlled Rectifier

• Three phase half controlled bridge converters & fully controlled bridge
converters are used extensively in industrial applications up to about
15kW of output power.
• The Three phase controlled rectifiers provide a maximum dc output of
vdc(max)=2vm / ∏
The output ripple frequency is equal to the twice the ac supply
frequency.
The single phase full wave controlled rectifiers provide two output
pulses during every input supply cycle.
Three phase converters are 3-phase controlled rectifiers which are used to
convert ac input power supply into dc output power across the load.
Features of 3-phase controlled rectifiers are
Operate from 3 phase ac supply voltage.
• They provide higher dc output voltage and higher dc output power.
• Higher output voltage ripple frequency.
• Filtering requirements are simplified for smoothing out load voltage and
load current
3- Controlled Rectifier
SMPS (Switch Mode power supply )

• Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) is an electronic circuit which

converts the power using switching devices that are turned on and off at
high frequencies, and storage components such as indicators or capacitors
to supply power when the switching device is in its non-conduction state.
It can be abbreviated as SMPS.
• • The switched-mode power supply is also called switch-mode power
supply or switching-mode power supply. Its efficiency is high. That’s
why we use it in the variety of electronic types of equipment which
require a stable and efficient power supply.

• • We can classify switched-mode power supply by the type of the input

and output voltages.
Block Diagram
Types of SMPS

• he working of a basic AC to DC switched-mode power supply is as shown in

diagram:

• • Input rectifier stage: we make use of this stage to convert AC into DC, and
the circuit which has DC input does not require this stage. In this, the
rectifier produces unregulated DC. We pass this unregulated DC through the
filter.
• • Inverter stage: This stage converts DC into AC by running it through a
power oscillator. The DC supply can come either directly from the input or
from the rectifier stage which is explained above. The output transformer of
power oscillator is tiny with few winding at a frequency of 10 or 100 KHz.
• • Output transformer: if we want to isolate the output from the input, the
inverted AC is used to draw the primary winding of a high-frequency
transformer. It converts the voltage up or down to the required output level
on its secondary winding.
• • Output rectifier: if we want the DC output, then the AC output from the
transformer is rectified.
• • Regulation: in this, the output voltage is monitored by the feedback circuit
and then compares it with the reference voltage.
SMPS types

• We can classify the switched-mode power supply by circuit topology. It

can be of two types: isolated and non-isolated typologies.

• • Isolated typologies: This type of topology includes a transformer. Thus, it

can produce an output of higher or lower voltage than the input by
adjusting the turns ratio. For some typologies, we can place multiple
winding on the transformer so that it can produce various output voltages.
While some converters make use of a transformer for the storage of energy,
while others make use of a separate inductor.

• Various isolated typologies are as follows:

• • Fly-back converter
• • Forward converter
• • Push-pull converter
• • Half-bridge converter
• • Full-bridge converter
SMPS types

• Non-isolated typologies: This type of topology make use of non-

isolated converters, which are the simplest. There are three
basic types of non-isolated converters which make use of a
single inductor for storage of energy. In this, we assume the
input voltage to be higher than 0. If it is negative, we will negate
the output voltage.

• Various types of non-isolated typologies are as follows:

• • Buck topology
• • Boost topology
• • Buck-Boost topology
• • Split-pi topology
• • SEPIC topology
• • Cuk topology
SMPS applicatios

• It is used in machine-tool industries.

• • It is used for security systems.
• • It is used in personal computers.
• • It is used in closed circuit cameras.
• • It is used in mobile phone chargers.
• • It is used to support supplies with PLC’s.