Data and Computer

Communications
Chapter 14 – Cellular Wireless Networks

Ninth Edition
by William Stallings

Data and Computer Communications, Ninth

Edition by William Stallings, (c) Pearson
Education - Prentice Hall, 2011
 Cellular Wireless Networks

After the fire of 1805, Judge Woodward was the central

figure involved in reestablishing the town. Influenced
by Major Pierre L’Enfant’s plans for Washington, DC,
Judge Woodward envisioned a modern series of
hexagons with major diagonal avenues centered on
circular parks, or circuses, in the center of the
hexagons. Frederick Law Olmstead said, "nearly all of
the most serious mistakes of Detroit's past have arisen
from a disregard of the spirit of Woodward's plan."
—Endangered Detroit,
Friends of the Book-Cadillac Hotel
Principles of Cellular Networks
 Developed to increase capacity for mobile
radio telephone service
 Prior to cellular radio:

mobile service was only provided by one high
powered transmitter/receiver

typically supported about 25 channels

had a radius of about 80km
Cellular Network Organization
 key for mobile technologies
 based on multiple low power transmitters
 area divided into cells

in a tiling pattern to provide full coverage

each with own antenna

each with own range of frequencies

served by base station
• consisting of transmitter, receiver, and control unit

adjacent cells use different frequencies to avoid
crosstalk
• cells sufficiently distant can use same frequency band
Cellular Geometries
Frequency Reuse
Frequency
Reuse
Patterns
 Increasing Capacity
 add new channels

not all channels used to start with
 frequency borrowing

taken from adjacent cells by congested cells

assign frequencies dynamically
 cell splitting

non-uniform topography and traffic distribution

use smaller cells in high use areas
Cell Splitting
Increasing Capacity
 Typical Parameters for
Macrocells and Microcells
[ANDE95]
Frequency Reuse Example
Operation of Cellular System
Cellular System Channels
 Call
Stages
 Other Functions
 call blocking

after repeated attempts, if all traffic channels are busy,
a busy tone is returned
 call termination

when a user hangs up channels at the BS are released
 call drop

when BS cannot maintain required signal strength
 calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber

MTSO connects to the PSTN
 Mobile Radio
Propagation Effects
 signal strength  fading

strength of signal 
time variation of
between BS and received signal
mobile unit needs to 
caused by changes
be strong enough to in transmission
maintain signal path(s)
quality 
even if signal

not too strong so as strength is in
to create co-channel effective range,
interference signal propagation

must handle effects may disrupt
variations in noise the signal
 Design Factors

propagation effects:

desired maximum transmit power level at BS and
mobile units

typical height of mobile unit antenna

available height of the BS antenna
 propagation effects are difficult to predict

use model based on empirical data
• Widely used model by Okumura et al & refined by Hata

detailed analysis of Tokyo area

produced path loss information for an urban environment

Hata's model is an empirical formulation that takes
into account a variety of conditions
Multipath Propagation
Effects of Multipath
Propagation
Types of Fading
 Error Compensation
Mechanisms
 forward error  adaptive equalization
correction 
applied to

applicable in digital transmissions that
transmission carry analog or digital
applications information

typically, ratio of total 
used to combat
bits to data bits is 2-3 intersymbol
interference

involves gathering the
dispersed symbol
energy back together
into its original time
interval
 Error Compensation
Mechanisms
 diversity

based on fact that individual channels experience
independent fading events

use multiple logical channels between transmitter and
receiver

send part of signal over each channel

doesn’t eliminate errors, but reduces

space diversity involves physical transmission paths

more commonly refers to frequency or time diversity

most important example of frequency diversity is
spread spectrum
 First Generation Analog
 originalcellular telephone networks
 analog traffic channels
 early 1980s in North America
 Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
 also common in South America, Australia,
and China
 replaced by later generation systems
AMPS Parameters
 Operation
 AMPS-capable phone has numeric assignment
module (NAM) in read-only memory

NAM contains number of phone

serial number of phone

when phone turned on, transmits serial number and
phone number to MTSO

MTSO has database of mobile units reported stolen

MTSO uses phone number for billing

if phone is used in remote city, service is still billed to
user's local service provider
AMPS Call Sequence
 AMPS Control Channels
 21 full-duplex 30-kHz control channels

transmit digital data using FSK

data transmitted in frames
 control information can be transmitted over voice
channel during conversation

mobile unit or the base station inserts burst of data
• turn off voice FM transmission for about 100 ms
• replacing it with an FSK-encoded message

used to exchange urgent messages
• change power level
• handoff
 Second Generation CDMA
 provide higher quality signals, higher data rates
for support of digital services, with overall
greater capacity
 key differences include:

digital traffic channels

encryption

error detection and correction

channel access
• time division multiple access (TDMA)
• code division multiple access (CDMA)
 Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA)
 have a number of 2nd generation systems

for example IS-95 using CDMA
 each cell allocated frequency bandwidth

 orthogonal chipping codes provide multiple

access
W-CDMA Parameters
 CDMA Advantages
 frequency diversity  privacy

noise bursts and 
inherent in use of
fading have less effect spread-spectrum

 graceful degradation
 multipath resistance 
more users means

chipping codes have more noise and more
low cross and errors
autocorrelation 
leads to slow signal
degradation until
unacceptable
 CDMA Disadvantages
 near-far problem

signals closer to
 self-jamming receiver are received

some cross correlation with less attenuation
between users than signals farther
away

transmissions more
remote might be
difficult to recover
RAKE Receiver
 IS-95
 second generation CDMA scheme
 primarily deployed in North America
 transmission structures different on
forward and reverse links
IS-95 Channel Structure
IS-95 Forward Link
 Forward
Link
Processing
 Forward Link - Scrambling
 after interleaver data are scrambled

serves as a privacy mask

prevents sending of repetitive patterns

reduces probability of users sending at peak power at
same time
 scrambling done by long code

pseudorandom number from 42-bit shift register

initialized with user's electronic serial number

output at a rate of 1.2288 Mbps
Forward Link - Power Control
 inserts
power control information in traffic
channel

controls the power output of antenna

robs traffic channel of bits at rate of 800 bps
• inserted by stealing code bits

800-bps channel carries information directing
mobile unit to adjust output level

power control stream multiplexed to 19.2 kbps
 Forward Link - DSSS
 spreads 19.2 kbps to 1.2288 Mbps
 using one row of Walsh matrix

assigned to mobile station during call setup

if 0 presented to XOR, 64 bits of assigned row sent

if 1 presented, bitwise XOR of row sent
 final bit rate 1.2288 Mbps
 bit stream modulated onto carrier using QPSK

data split into I and Q (in-phase and quadrature)
channels

data in each channel XORed with unique short code
 Third Generation (3G)
Systems
 high-speed wireless communications to support
multimedia, data, and video in addition to voice
 3G capabilities:
• voice quality comparable to PSTN
• 144 kbps available to users over large areas
• 384 kbps available to pedestrians over small areas
• support for 2.048 Mbps for office use
• symmetrical and asymmetrical data rates
• packet-switched and circuit-switched services
• adaptive interface to Internet
• more efficient use of available spectrum
• support for variety of mobile equipment
• allow introduction of new services and technologies
 3G Driving Forces
 trend toward universal personal telecommunications
 universal communications access
 GSM cellular telephony with subscriber identity module,
is step towards goals
 personal communications services (PCSs) and personal
communication networks (PCNs) also form objectives for
third-generation wireless
 technology is digital using time division multiple access
or code-division multiple access
 PCS handsets low power, small and light
Typical Mobile Device
Capacity Demands
IMT-2000 Terrestrial Radio
Alternative Interfaces
CDMA Design Considerations
– Bandwidth and Chip Rate
 dominant technology for 3G systems is CDMA

 chip rate

given bandwidth, chip rate depends on desired data
rate, need for error control, and bandwidth limitations

chip rate of 3 Mbps or more is reasonable
CDMA Design Considerations
– Multirate
 provision of multiple fixed-data-rate channels to user
 different data rates provided on different logical channels
 logical channel traffic can be switched independently
through wireless fixed networks to different destinations
 flexibly support multiple simultaneous applications
 efficiently use available capacity by only providing the
capacity required for each service
 use TDMA within single CDMA channel
 use multiple CDMA codes
 CDMA Multirate
Time and Code Multiplexing
 Fourth Generation (4G)
Systems
 rapid
increase in data traffic on wireless
networks
• more terminals accessible to the Internet
• permanent connections to e-mail
• multimedia services
• support for real time services
 4G Development
 Bothbased on use of orthogonal
frequency division multiple access
(OFDMA)
Wireless Network
Generations
Advantages of OFDM
 OFDM Quadrature Phase
Shift Keying (QPSK)
 symbolrepresents 2 bits
 Example of OFDM/QPSK scheme:

occupies 6 MHz made up of 512 individual
carriers, with a carrier separation of a little
under 12kHz

data are transmitted in bursts

bursts consist of a cyclic prefix followed by
data symbols

cyclic prefix absorbs burst transients

waveform from multipath signal is gone,
resulting in no ISI
(OFDMA)
 Summary
 principles of wireless cellular networks

cellular network organization
 operation of wireless cellular networks
 first-generation analog
 second-generation CDMA

RAKE receiver

IS – 95
 3G systems
 4G systems

OFDM and OFDMA