Logic Gates

 A logic gate (or electronic gate) is a circuit that is able to

operate on a number of binary signals to perform a
particular logical function
 In other words, it is a device that controls the flow of
information, usually in the form of pulses
 In practice, the available logic gates in use are:
 NOT (OR INVERTER)
 AND
 OR
 NOR (NOT-OR)
 NAND (NOT-AND)
 EXCLUSIVE-OR (XOR)
 EXCLUSIVE-NOR (XNOR)
 Logic Gates
 NOT (INVERTER)
 Performs a basic logic function called inversion
or complementation
 The inverter changes one logic level (HIGH /
LOW) to the opposite logic level
 In terms of bits, it changes a ‘1’ to a ‘0’ and
vice- versa
 The standard logic symbols for the inverter
are:
INPUT OUTPUT
1
1 0
HIGH LOW

0 1
LOW HIGH
 Logic Gates
 The truth table for NOT gate

INPUT OUTPUT

A Y=A

0 1

1 0

 The total number of possible input

combinations (N) is determined by the
mathematical formula:
N = 2n
where n is the number of input variables
 Logic Gates
 The AND gate
 Is composed of two or more inputs and a
single output, and it performs logical
multiplication
 The logical operation of the AND gate is such
that the output is HIGH (1) when all the inputs
are HIGH, otherwise it is LOW (0)
 The standard logic symbols for the AND gate
are: &
&
 Logic Gates
 The truth table for AND gate

INPUT OUTPUT

A B X = AB

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1
 Logic Gates
 The OR gate
 Is composed of two or more inputs and a
single output, and it performs logical addition
 The logical operation of the OR gate is such
that the output is HIGH (1) when any of the
inputs are HIGH, otherwise it is LOW (0)
 The standard logic symbols for the OR gate
are:

1

1
 Logic Gates
 The truth table for OR gate

INPUT OUTPUT

A B X = A+B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1
 Logic Gates
 The NOR (NOT OR) gate
 Is composed of two or more inputs and a single
output and it has a universal property
 The term NOR is a contraction of NOT–OR and
implies an OR function with an inverted output
 The logical operation of the NOR gate is such
that the output is HIGH (1) only when all the
inputs are LOW
 The standard logic symbols for the NOR gate
are: 1
1
 Logic Gates
 The truth table for NOR gate

INPUT OUTPUT

A B X =A+B

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0
 Logic Gates
 The NAND (NOT AND) gate
 Is composed of two or more inputs and a
single output
 It is a very popular logic element because it
may be used as a universal function
 That is, it may be employed to construct an
inverter, an AND gate, an OR gate, or any
combination of these functions
 The term NAND is a contraction of NOT-AND
and implies an AND function with an inverted
output
 The logical operation of the NAND gate is such
that the output is LOW (0) only when all the
inputs are HIGH (1)
 Logic Gates
 The standard logic symbols for the NAND gate:
&
&

 The truth table for NAND gate is:

INPUT OUTPUT

A B X = AB

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0
 Logic Gates
 The XOR (EXCLUSIVE OR) Gate
 It has two input terminals and one output
terminal
 Usually formed from the combination of other
logic gates
 Is an "inequality" function and the output is
HIGH (1) when the inputs are not equal to
each other
 The standard logic symbols for the XOR gate:
=1
=1
 Logic Gates
 The truth table for XOR gate is

INPUT OUTPUT

A B X

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0
 Logic Gates
 The XNOR (EXCLUSIVE NOR)
 It has two input terminals and one output
terminal
 Usually formed from the combination of other
logic gates
 Is an "equality" function and the output is
HIGH (1) when the inputs are equal to each
other
 The standard logic symbol for the XNOR gate:
=1
=1
 Logic Gates
 The truth table for XNOR gate is

INPUT OUTPUT

A B X

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1
 Logic Gates
 The truth table below summarizes the
output states for all 2-input gates

INPUT OUTPUT OF EACH GATE

A B AND NAND OR NOR EX-OR EX-

NOR

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
 Logic Gates
 The truth table below summarizes the
output states for all 3-input gates

INPUT OUTPUT
A B C AND NAND OR NOR
0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 0
 Combination of Logic Gates
 Logic gates can be combined to produce
more complex functions
 They can also be combined to substitute
one type of gate for another
 For example to produce an output Q
which is true only when input A is true and
input B is false, as shown in the truth table
below,
INPUT A INPUT B OUTPUT Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
 Combination of Logic Gates
 we can combine a NOT gate and an AND
gate like this

Q = A AND NOT B
 Combination of Logic Gates
 Truth tables can be used to work out the
function and the output of a combination
of gates
 For example

D = NOT (A OR B)
E = B AND C
Q = D OR E (NOT(A OR B)) OR (B AND C)
Chapter 3: Combination of Logic
Gates

INPUTS OUTPUTS
A B C D E Q
0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
 Combination of Logic Gates
signment
Compute the truth table for the following combinational logic

& &
A A
1
C
1 F C F
& &

& &
D
B B
 Combination of Logic Gates
 Logic gates are available on ICs which usually
contain several gates of the same type
 For example four 2-input NAND gates or
three 3-input NAND gates
 This can be wasteful if only a few gates are
required
 To avoid using too many different gates you
can reduce the number of gate inputs or
substitute one type of gate for another
 The number of inputs to a gate can be
reduced by connecting two (or more) inputs
together
 Combination of Logic Gates
 The diagram below shows a 3-input AND
gate operating as a 2-input AND gate

 Reducing a NAND or NOR gate to just one

input creates a NOT gate
 Combination of Logic Gates
 NAND or NOR gates can also be combined
to create any type of gate apart from the
NOT gate

 This enables a circuit to be built from just

one type of gate, either NAND or NOR

 For example an AND gate is a NAND gate

then a NOT gate (to undo the inverting
function)
 Combination of Logic Gates
 To change a type of gate, such as changing
OR to AND, you must do three things:

 Invert (NOT) each input

 Change the gate type (OR to AND, or AND to
OR)
 Invert (NOT) the output

 For example an OR gate can be built from

NOT outputs fed into a NAND (AND + NOT)
gate
 Combination of Logic Gates
 NAND gate equivalents
 The table below shows the NAND gate
equivalents of NOT, AND, OR and NOR gates

Gate Equivalent in NAND gates

NOT

AND

OR

NOR
CHAPTER FOUR
 Boolean Functions
 A Boolean function is an expression formed with
binary variables and logical operators

 A binary variable can have two possible states,

namely ‘0’ and ‘1’

 A truth table is a list which defines a Boolean

function

 For example, lets consider the truth table shown

below
 Boolean Functions
INPUT OUTPUT
A B C X
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0

 The algebraic expression representing

this function is therefore
 Boolean Algebra
 It is the mathematics of digital system
 It is a relatively simple mathematical tool that
allows us to describe the relationship between a
logic circuit's output(s) and its inputs as an
algebraic equation (a Boolean expression)
 Boolean equations are often in either the sum-of-
product form or the product-of-sums form
 Each of the product terms in a sum-of-product
equation is known as a minterm
 while each sum term in a product-of-sum equation
is called a maxterm
 Boolean Algebra
 The basic rules for Boolean addition and
multiplication are presented in the Table
below
ADDITION RULES MULTIPLICATION RULES

0+0=0 0∙0=0
0+1=1 0∙1=0
1+0=1 1∙0=0
1+1=1 1∙1=1
 Laws of Boolean Algebra
 Cummutative Law
 The commutative law of addition for two
variables is algebraically expressed as
A+B=B+A
 The commutative law of multiplication for two
variables is expressed as
AB = BA

 Associative Laws
 The associative law of addition of three
variables is expressed as
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
 Laws of Boolean Algebra
 The associative law of multiplication of three
variables is expressed as
A(BC) = (AB)C

 Distributive Law
 The distributive law of three variables is
expressed as follows:
A (B+C) = AB + AC
Rules of Boolean Algebra
Rule Number Boolean Expression
1 A+0=A
2 A+1=1
3 A∙0=0
4 A∙1=A
5 A+A=A
6 A+A=1
7 A∙A =A
8 A ∙A=0
9 A=A
10 A + AB = A
11 A + AB = A + B
12 (A+B)(A+C) = A + BC
13
14
 Boolean Algebra
 De Morgan’s theorems may be verified by
examining the truth tables of Boolean
expressions
 For example: A+B= A∙B
A B A+B

0 0 A
1 B
1 A1B A0B 0

0 1 1 0 0 1 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0 0 1 1
 Boolean Algebra
 DUALITY
 Every sum-of-products equation has a dual
product-of-sums equation and vice versa

 This fact provides another method which can

be used in the simplification of Boolean
equations

 The dual of an equation is simply obtained by

merely replacing every AND symbol () by the
OR symbol (+) and vice versa
 Boolean Algebra
 Analyze the circuit behavior of the combinational
logic system using:
 the truth table method
 the Boolean algebra method.

A L N

B P

C
Q