MODULE 2 (Contd)

Loading Facilities, Storing facilities, Dredging &

Guiding facilities
Loading &Unloading Facilities
Units that help efficient process of loading unloading
1. Fixed units- Quays , Wharves, Piers and Jetties
2. Movable units – Cranes, Conveyers, Escalators, Vaccum
Pumps
Wharves – Platforms or landing places where the ship can
come close enough for embarkation and disembarkation.
The depth of water to be sufficient for ship to float
Quays – Wharves parallel to shore
Piers – Wharves which are at right angles or oblique to
shore and project into basin or ship’s fairway
Pierhead – Structure at the tip of a breakwater near the harbor
entrance, which should be recognizable as it provides the
purpose of an entrance mark. It should be provided with strong
light .
Jetty- A piled projection from shore to berth vessels. May be
either of bearing piles or friction piles and may be either driven
or cast-in-situ. Jetty face provided with cushion known as fender
Factors affecting the design of quay walls
1. Character of foundation
2. Pressure due to water at the rear of the wall
3. Effect of buoyancy for the portion of wall submerged
4. Earth pressure at rear
5. Weight of wall itself
6. Live load of vehicles passing on the platform
7. Dead load of goods stored on the platform
8. Force of impact of vehicles
Forces on quay walls
i) Horizontal Pressure
Falling tide exposes the wall to a
combined earth pressure and
water pressure from the land side
This is the most critical condition
Taking unit length of wall
Water pressure = Earth pressure =
Combined pressure ( W) =
where - weight of sea water, = weight of earth behind the wall
= angle of repose of the earth, h= height of wall
ii) Overturning moment
Caused by the moment of differential head
Consider a unit length of wall
Total equivalent liquid pressure (W) acts at a height of h/3 on the shore
side
Water pressure acts at a height of H/3 on the water side, at low level
Taking moments about base, the differential moment = which tends to
overturn
For equilibrium, overturning moment = weight of wall and counter
moment
Types of Quay walls
i) Solid quay wall – founded on wells, caissons and mounds.
ii)Dwarf Quay wall – founded on piles. Economical for river ports
and having moderate traffic
iii) Timber lattice work jetties – carried on iron piles or cylinders
iv) Quay wall supported on timber crib – cheaper than solid wall
v) Quay wall supported on rubble mound
Other details of quay walls
1. The driest and most durable materials should be put at the back of
quay walls to minimize the pressure caused by back filling ( rubble, slag,
granite etc)
2.Must be extended to deep water for vessels of largest displacement
(8m -11m)
3.Expansion joints at every 20 m necessary to permit irregular
movements
WHARVES
Landing places or platforms in the form of walls built near shore for
vessels to berth.
A wharf is a quay but used for an open or framed structure of piles or
posts with bracings
May be a sheet pile wall or gravity wall
Parallel to shore
Adopted at places where depth of water is sufficient for the ships to
berth (10m -12m)
Level of wharf should be above high-water level and at the same time
economical to load the vessels when water level is low
Properly braced and bolted to act as a unit when there is an impact
from any vessel
Rounded corners for smooth entry of ships
Should have terminal facilities for rail and truck transportation
Sufficient depth of water available for the berthing of ship
Piers
Perpendicular or oblique to shore
Constructed where the sea is not deep and natural harbour is not
convenient for berthing of ship adjacent to shore
Length –sufficient to accommodate the longest ship likely to take its
platform. Project beyond the stern or bow of ship to protect its hull
On both sides of piers berths are provided –open type or solid type
Open piers – timber or concrete piles. Where minimum restriction of
currents specified
Solid piers – Earth or rock fill. Offers more resistance to impact and wave
action. More stable and economical than open piers
Water area between 2 adjacent piers – slip
Width of slip-Sufficient for two vessels to be simultaneously located safely.
Enough space for barges to load or unload the ship. Adequate for easy
entry and departure of vessels.
Width of slip between piers – 3 to 4 times the beam of the largest ship to
be accommodated on the pier.
Slip
Consists of 2 parts- Floor and Supporting part
Floor – made of timber for small piers and of concrete or R.C.C for large
piers
Supporting Part – i) foundation ii) substructure
Foundation – raft or stepped footing or pile
Substructure – Part between seabed and bottom of floor
Fully framed – when pier to bear small loads, can be masonry or concrete
or R.C.C
When substructure is totally framed structure and pier floor is of timber, the
pier is known as trestle pier
a) Pier with central fill - When substructure of trestle is partly covered by
dredge materials
b) Pier with central mound - When substructure of trestle is fully covered
by mound
Trestle Pier
• The live load for pier- depends on anticipated cargo and shipping
• No space for storing of cargo on the pier
• Impact effect to be considered while designing. Horizontal thrust is
taken as 1% of maximum weight of vessel to be berthed.
• Water depth at the pier –Minimum 300mm clearance under the keel
of fully loaded ship.
Pierheads
Helps in demarcating the approach channel
Protects the breakwater section immediately adjacent to it.
Subjected to worst forces as it is exposed to three sides. Hence self –
sustained and properly anchored to ensure stability against lateral
displacement and overturning.
Should be constructed as an independent monolith without any step or
projection at its base

Should possess some prominent

feature to distinguish it from
others
Should be designed to withstand
the impact of largest ship likely to
use the harbour.
Jetties
Piled projections built out from the shore to deep water.
Divert the current away from the riverbank and thus scouring action
prevented.
In the sea jetties are provided at places where harbour entrance is affected
by littoral drift or sea is shallow for a long distance
Structural design same as breakwater as they are exposed to severe wave
action.
May take various forms such as single curved jetty, converging jetty,
diverging jetty etc.
Dolphins
• Construction in the form of a cluster of closely spaced piles
• Piles are pulled together at the top and tied by a cable
• Used for tying ships and also for transferring cargo from one ship to
another when moored along both sides
• Designed for resisting horizontal impact force, wind force and water
current force
Types of Dolphins
Breasting Dolphins
Have bollards or mooring parts to take the ship and move a ship along
the dock or hold it against the current
Provided with fenders to absorb the impact of ship and to protect the
dolphins as well as the ship from the damage
Mooring dolphins
• To hold a ship against a broadside wind blowing in a direction away from
dock
• Since away from dock not
designed for impact of ship
• Mooring lines are right
angles to the dock
Classification of dolphins
Flexible Dolphins
Odd number of piles
(3,5,7,9 etc) tied with a
galvanized cable
Centre pile of cluster projects about one meter above the other piles so as to
provide means of attaching the mooring lines of a ship
Piles arranged with a slight batter and are distributed symmetrically
Can moore vessels up to 50000KN dead weight
Bearing capacity of foundation soil should be such that pile cluster rebounds
to its original position after being struck by a
vessel
Rigid Dolphins
Piles of the cluster are bolted to wooden
cross members located just above low water
with wooden framing at the top
Used for larger ships and tankers
Fenders
To protect the dock wall from receiving a large hard hit from a loaded ship,
which disturbs the loading and unloading, buffer or cushion is provided
between ship and dock wall, which are known as fenders
Types of fenders
1.Timber piles fenders with springs
2. Rubber fenders
a) Rigidly fixed
b) Loosely fixed
3. Pneumatic fenders
When a ship is brought alongside a berth , it first strikes the fenders.
Contact is near the quarter point ( one-fourth length of ship)
Fender is pressed and simultaneously ship swings towards the berth
and also move forward
If berth is a non-rigid structure ( piled quay or dolphin)- deflects and
absorbs some energy of impact
Some energy absorbed by elastic deformation of ship’s hull
Maximum reaction when the ship presses while berthing is to be
evaluated- force which will deflect the structure, distort the ship’s hull
and the force the fender is subjected
Kinetic energy of a ship approaching a berth
K.E = W- weight of ship (tons), v – velocity of approach of ship (m/sec),
g – gravitational acceleration
Ship strikes the berth at an angle ( 100)
Velocity at right angles to berth = v sin =V
Energy at right angles to berth ,E =
While pressing against the berth, ship rotates towards it and energy of
rotation l = distance from the c.g. of the vessel to the point of
contact (m), r- radius of gyration about the axis
Berthing energy =
Radius of gyration r= ¼ th of length of ship (L)
Contact of ship is quarter point l = ¼ th of length of ship (L)
- energy when the ship strikes the fenders at quarter point contact
For other points of contact appropriate values of l/r should be taken
When a ship is brought to rest, the body
of water moving with hull is also brought
to rest
Increases the weight of the ship
Additional weight is called hydrodynamic
weight.
Two methods
- by F. Vasco Costa - hydrodynamic weight of ship
D – draught of ship, B-beam of ship
– cylindrical method ( additional weight is equal to a cylinder whose
diameter is draught of ship length is equal to length of ship)
w – unit weight of water. For sea water – 1.03 tonnes/m3
Total effective weight while berthing ( virtual weight)

Timber piles fenders with springs

Timber piles driven at 3m to 5m intervals on basin side of quay wall
Top of piles connected to vertical face through springs
Ship cannot touch the quay wall as piles cantilevered from sea bed
The large force from ship is transferred to wall through piles. Springs
will be compressed to resist the force
When load from ship is removed , spring extends, and piles become
vertical
Thus, wall is saved from impact
Timber piles fenders with
springs
Rubber Fenders
Two types
i) Rigidly fixed on dock wall rubber fender
U-shaped or any other shaped rubber pads
Many numbers at regular intervals
Absorbs the impact of ship and saves the quay wall
Chances of getting crushed if the impact is heavy. Replaced with new
pads.
ii) Loosely anchored rubber tubes
Thick U –shaped rubber tubes in which steel chain is passing through
central hole
Suspended on thick bolts and nuts
Tubes absorb the impact of ship.
Rubber fenders - Rigidly fixed
Rubber fenders - Loosely fixed
Pneumatic Fenders
Pneumatic rubber tyres fixed on top of quay wall partly projecting into
the basin at regular intervals
Ship comes on contact with tyres only (pnuematic) which bears the
impact of ship
Pneumatic fenders
 Classification of fenders

Four categories
1. Rubbing strips
Timber Grill
Gravity –type fendering system
Rubber fendering
 Moles
Structure formed by rock filling and extending from shores
Preferred when water depth is less than 3m and height should not
exceed 8m
Top surface used for facilities like roadway, sidewalk, railway track etc
Sides should be unyielding and stable from erosion
Storing Facilities
It is found that one-half of total
life of ship is spent in transporting
the freight and passengers
between ports and other half is
spent in ports including loading
and unloading of cargo, repairs
etc.
It is therefore necessary to plan
the port facilities in such a way
that the stay of a ship is reduced
to a minimum at the port to make
its maximum economic use
possible
Aprons
The open floor space left immediately in front of a berth for loading
and unloading of cargo.
Space should be there for installation of railway tracks and other
mechanical contrivances such as road trucks, cranes for efficient
discharge of cargo
Width should be such that it results into the minimum travel time of
cargo to and from the ship and the transit shed
Width usually varies from 10m ( for ports with light traffic ) to 25 m ( for
ports with heavy traffic)
Transit Sheds
Transit sheds
Goods stored for short period
Sheds of one or two storeys in height
Floor area used for handling of cargo and for storage
Goods should be immediately taken away if they are of uniform character
and consigned to a particular individual
Mixed one and consigned to several people - sorting is required- period of
3-5 days
After that demurrage or compensation to be paid
Construction requirement of transit shed
1.Doors should be provided for ready and rapid opening (Folding or sliding)
2. Mobile cranes with extendible booms and having 2 to 30 tones capacities
are made available
3. Long boom wharf cranes mounted on portal frames
4. Construction should be light and fire resistant
5.Should have ample lighting- skylights during day and artificial lights for night
6. Should have modern fire fighting arrangements
7. Should be adjacent to the quay
8. Should have big capacity for storing incoming and outgoing cargo at the
same time
9.Provision of road and rail for quick transit of cargo
Ht of transit sheds – 6m to 7m and increased to 8m if movable cranes are to be
used
Design of transit sheds
Aisle space for one ship with 50% load is the basis of design
Aisle space – open space for rapid handling of cargo in transit shed
Common load capacity of ship- 6250 t
Storage area required = 8400 m2 – 10000 m2 ( even 11,150 m2)
Length of transit shed – length of berth
Width = = =60 m
For a finger pier ( berth on both sides ) = 2 x 60 width required
Transverse slope – 1 in 48 – 1 in 96 so that a railway platform of height 1.2 m can
be achieved.
Floor of transit shed
i) Non-dust producing
ii) Non-slippery
iii) Abrasion resisting
iv) Must be at same level as that of quay apron
v) Grilled area or lock rooms for preserving precious or costly items
vi) Space for storing dirty items
vii) Flow diagrams for showing export – import conditions are to be
prepared
Warehouses
Permanent structures on shore or directly behind transit sheds
Goods stored for longer periods of definite or indefinite duration
Also known as storage godowns
If used for storing cargo remaining under customs authority under
cleared – bonded warehouses
Built of R.C.C with many floors
Special type of construction and equipment for each type of material
( grain storage, meat storage ,special storing bins and spouts,
refrigeration plants etc.)
Easy and ready access and facilities for transfer and removal of goods
( suitable sidings and rows around the sheds and warehouses)
Cargo disposed in four ways
1. Transferred to the country craft or to coastal vessel directly
2. Removed by land vehicles and coastal vehicles
3. Directly transferred to railway wagons
4. Transferred to lorries and road vehicles
Cold storages
Guard houses
Houses located at strategic points in the port area ( entrance gates of
highways and railways, entrance to piers or terminal areas, bonded
storage etc.)
Dredging
Excavation of bed below water to increase the depth of water at
required locations in basin.
Primary dredging
To know the location of dredging, hydrographic survey is performed
Horizontal controls ( for locations of areas to be dredged) and vertical
controls( to know the amount of area to be dredged and up to what
depth to be dredged)is established
Areas to be dredged is demarcated by taking soundings
From reduced sounding contour plot with interpolation of areas like X
and Y demarcated for known depth of dredging
If dredged materials are to be removed only once at the start or opening
of a harbor –primary dredging or capital dredging. Material removed will
be anything from rock to silt
If the dredging is repeated at regular intervals to maintain the depth of
water – maintenance dredging. Materials obtained will be in the form of
fresh deposits like silt and sand only
Disposal of dredged materials
1. Conveyed out to sea and deposited far from the site of accumulation
2. Conveyed and deposited in swampy inland areas or adjacent to the
shore for reclamation of land
Types of dredging devices
1. Dipper dredge 2. Grapple dredge 3. Continuous bucket elevator or
ladder dredge 4.Hydraulic or suction dredge
1.Dipper dredge
Consists of
a. Floating vessel carrying an inclined frame A in the bow to hold the boom B
by guy wires
b. A dipper stick in the middle of the boom working by rack and pinion
arrangement
c. A dipper bucket with a flap (K)
attached to the end of the stick
d. A hoist cable attached to the
bucket to move it up and down
Operation
Hoist cable is released to enable
the bucket to reach the bed
The teeth of the bucket is forced to bite into the soil by applying force
through rack and pinion arrangement
Hoist cable pulled and a cut is made in the bed
Hoisting continued, bucket hauled out of water, boom B swung round to
deposit the material in the bucket into any scow along side or to any
predetermined place by opening the flap
Boom swung back, dipper lowered, and process repeated
Advantages
1.Easy maneuverability and hence suitable for use in confined spaces around
docks and narrow channels
2.Very powerful and capable of excavating in hard soil for removal of
boulders and breaking up of heavy objects like old piles, cribs etc. Can dig up
to 15m water depth and capacity varies from 1 to 4 m3.
3.Can deposit excavated soil either on bank or on a floating barge
4. Capable of excavating rocks which break into large heavy pieces
2. Grapple Dredge
Consists of
a. A hull with a frame and a boom B. Frame guyed back by back legs
b. Boom fixed to the required elevation by guy wire and arranged to rotate
through a horizontal angle on a pivot at the lower end
c. A grab bucket (K) suspended by two cable lines (HH – opening and
closing lines).Line pass over two main sheaves fixed to the upper end of
the boom
d. Dredge is moored by the help
of stakes fixed fore and aft.
Operation
Dredge is positioned and a scow is brought alongside and tied to it.
Bucket is lowered to the bottom, where it bites the bed and fills itself.
Tension is applied on the closing cable, which closes the bucket, hoists
the load and swings the boom horizontally to the right.
When the boom reaches the scow, the tension in the cables reversed
Bucket is opened and the contents discharged and the boom swings
back to the digging position
Advantages
Efficient and suitable for dredging materials like sand, clay or mud but not
good for hard diggings
Disadvantages
Bed dredged will be uneven with pits and high spots
3.Continuous bucket elevator or ladder dredge
Consists of
a) Endless chain of buckets, mounted and running round a ladder, formed
in the middle of the bow of a floating vessel. Buckets provided with
cutting edges
b) Ladder , which is raised or lowered by the line N
c) Big wheel for the operation of buckets ( manually or mechanically)
Operation
Each bucket cuts and brings up material to the top of the ladder as the chain
moves round
Each bucket inverts on descent and discharge its contents into special holds
H,H
Vessel moves forward on completion of work at each section
Digging depths 9 m-12 m. Average digging capacity -6000m3 - 7650m3
Advantages
Suitable for handling coarse gravel or sand, hard clays and even soft or
broken stone at fairly good depths and beyond the reach of dipper
Bed dredged is least disturbed
4.Hydraulic or suction dredge
Consists of
a) Suction pipe with a cutter at lower end and a universal joint at top.
b) A ladder on which the pipe is supported
c) Frame A mounted on the bow of the dredging vessel
to held the pipe in position
d) A centrifugal pump to which the pipe is connected located amidship and
having a long flexible delivery pipe discharging into hopper barges
Operation
Hull V carries the suction pipe on a ladder in the bow
Cutter is suspended from the frame.
Vessel is moored by anchors
Cutter rotates, cuts and loosens the soil for quick and easy suction by the pump.
Cut up material well churned in the operation and mixed with water to facilitate
suction
Digging depth – 4.5 m -15 m
Machinery operated by steam
power or electric power
Advantages
• Very effective in beds of sand,
silt, mud and clay in open water
and excellent machine to clear
sand bars
• Gravels and soft rocks are
easily reduced by the cutter
Disadvantages
Big boulders or tree stumps must be lifted out before putting the cutter to
work
Choice of dredger depends on nature of seabed ( loose material or rock)
Topographic, geological and submarine geophysical surveys to be carried out
to decide the nature of seabed.
Actual volume of dredged material, dept to be attained and length of dredged
channel determined.
Execution of dredging work – contract dredging and direct labour dredging
Contract dredging – capital dredging
Direct labour dredging –maintenance dredging
Guiding facilities
Purpose of navigation facilities
1. To avoid dangerous zones like hidden rocky outcrops and sand bars
2. To follow proper harbour approaches
3. To locate ports, especially during night and bad weather affording poor
visibility due to fog or clouds
Fixed and floating light stations
Light stations built on land – fixed- located on hinterland close to sea or in
the sea on submerged outcrops
When difficulties in establishing proper foundation, light stations in the
form of vessels – floating
Lighthouse
Lofty structure of masonry or R.C.C in the shape of a tall tower on a high
pedestal
Divided into number of floors- topmost floor for lighting equipment and
machinery- lower floor for stores and living room
Located on shore or away from mainland
Foundation depend on characteristics of soil- on good rock or hard soil-
a thick bed of concrete & marshy locations – piles or caissons
Stone or concrete blocks joggled both vertically or horizontally
Narrow gallery outside the lantern room protected by pipe railing
Lights of light house
Light should be identified, and its distance ascertained for the mariner
to locate its position
Fixed or flashing
Classified according to their illuminating power
Height of tower above sea level determines the geographical range
and the intensity or power of the light
Illumination is refracted through powerful lenses and prisms and
reflected or flashed by highly polished hyperbolic concave mirrors

Fixed lights likely to be confused with private lights of neighborhood

Assuming a satisfactory luminous range, the distance at which the light
is first visible on the horizon is calculated
L = D1 + D2 = (√h/0.26) + (√h1 /0.26) =3.86 (√h + √h1)
Where h = combined effect of curvature and atmospheric reaction (m)
or height of the light on light house = 0.0672 D12 or D1 = (√h/0.26)
D1 = distance between light house and point of tangency
L = horizontal distance from the ship to the light house (Km)
h1 = Height on the observer on the ship, both metres above MSL
Signals
To demarcate or clearly define approach channel
1. Light ships have to be provided at important changes in the direction
of the route of ships
2. Lighted beacons are to be fixed on river banks
3. Buoys are required at entrance channels to ports
Requirements of a signal
4. Visible
5. Should not vary in character
6. Simple for identification
7. Permit time for easy response
At night recognized by intensity and colour of lights and at day by shape
and colour
Every country has its own signal
Types of signals
i) Light signals
ii) Fog signals
iii) Audible signals
Light Signals
iv) Light ships
v) Beacons
vi) Buoys
Light ships
Small ships carrying a lantern on an open steel tower.
Tower 9m-12m above water level and erected amidships
Consists of four pairs of mirror reflectors placed around the light and
revolves at a suitable speed emitting a predetermined number of flashes
Securely anchored or moored
More stable and lights more steady
Hull of ship built of steel and painted red.
Name of station painted in white colour on both sides
Storm warning signals are also installed on light ships
Relief light ships – red colour with word ‘Relief’ painted on both sides
Beacons – Any prominent object natural or artificially constructed, easily
identifiable and capable of being used as a guide in navigation
Used for indicating direction changes
a) Hill summit b) building or structure c) church steeple d) factory chimney
e)framework with a wide stable base and gradually narrowed top with a
figure like rectangle or circle
Buoys
Small floating structures employed for demarcation like entrances,
approach channel, boundaries and so on.
Moored to sinkers or heavy anchors with the help of heavy chains whose
lengths are 2 to 3 times the depth of water and which are 70mm to
90mm in diameter
Buoys are of different designs and patterns
Star- Board- hand and Port – Hand Buoys
Two rows of buoys used to indicate approach channel widths, one along
each boundary.
Left to navigator - Star- Board- hand
Right to navigator- Port – Hand Buoys
Have to support not only their own weight, but also the weight of cables or
chains by which they are moored
Made of steel or iron plates
Hollow structures constructed in two watertight sections so that in case one of
them is leaky the other may prevent it from sinking
Max.distance between consecutive buoys -1600 m in estuaries and 150m to
300m in narrow channels
Diameter – 1.8 m – 3 m
In tidal places where water is
liable to fluctuations, buoys are
not steady and do not give
correct guidance regarding
alignment
Presence of buoys indicates
proximity of places with shallow
depth
Classified according to size, shape,
colour, weight, purpose etc
Junction ( Spherical) –To indicate there is navigable water all around the
mark including the end of a channel or mid channel
Pillar Buoys- Equipped with lights or sound signaling systems. Often have
radar reflectors so that they can be easily picked up on radar
Wreck buoys -PPeculiar shape and used to locate wrecks in harbour exteriors or
open seas
Mooring Buoys
For mooring the ships while its stay in the harbour without using
anchors
Provided in fixed positions
Designed to have sufficient buoyancy to take the resultant downward
component between the pull of ships mooring line and ground chain
For maintaining the top of buoy in horizontal position, the ratio of
depth to diameter is 1:2
Made of cast steel
Anchor chain – 70mm-90mm
diameter
Holding power of anchor
a) Firm sand – 7 x weight of anchor
b) Stiff plastic clay – 1.5 x value of firm sand
c) Soft mud - .25 x value of firm sand
Positioning of mooring buoy-
concrete weight ( 2-10 t) attached
separately to the buoy by chain
Reduces the length of chain by
adding dead weight of chain
Buoyage system
Shape and colour indicate purpose
English and India – shape of buoy
French practice - Coloured buoys
U.S.A. - Shapes – spar, can, nun, lighted, spherical etc with special
numbering, colouring, lighting ,symbol and other characteristics
Fog Signals
1.Ordinary bells struck by hand
2.Ordinary bells operated by mechanism
3.Submarine bells
4.Whistles or sirens blown by compressed air or steam
Fog signals

Audible Signals
In emergency to bring immediate attention of the mariners
Explosive signals, electric oscillators, sirens, bells and diaphones
Should be such that can be heard from a great distance with easy
identification of direction
Moorings
Devices provided where anchorage water is limited.
Even though berthing facilities is not necessary for every harbor, but
moorings is absolute necessary for the vessel to come close to harbor
Required for ships in distress for shelter even when no business is
involved
Anchorage area for mooring should be deep and has to be out of the
path of approach channel
If anchorage area is limited, ships are made to wait by tying them to
moorings
Mooring Accessories
Fixed or floating type
Fixed type
1. Mooring port – attached to the corner of a pier or at the ends of
wharf for bringing the ship into the dock
2. Bollard – Take pulls up to 350 KN
Can be single bit or double bit
Fastened on concrete block by galvanized bolts
3. Capstan – an upright cylinder around which cables are wound either
by machinery or by hand
Helpful when rope lines are large and long, specially when attached to
dolphins
Floating type
1. Buoys
2. Cables – consists of pendant, hanging chain and ground chain. Pendant
consists of stud or open link chain. Upper half fitted with swivel. Lies on the
seabed with suitable anchor attached at extreme ends
3. Anchor
Heavy objects which are lowered to the bottom of water by cable or chain to
keep a vessel from drifting
Advantages
1. The portion of the ship is predetermined
2. The area occupied by the ship is known
3. Comparatively heavy and makes the vessel more durable
4. Develop a firm hold and seating because of its long contact with the
seabed