DATA TRANSMISSION

Types and methods of data transmission

Data packets
Data sent over long distances is usually broken up into data packets
The packets of data are usually quite small, typically 64KiB, which are much
easier to control than a long continuous stream of data.
Packet structure
A typical packet is split up into:
» a packet header
» the payload
» a trailer
For each packet, the packet header consists of:
» the IP address of the sending device
» the IP address of the receiving device
» the sequence number of the packet (this is to ensure that all the packets can
be reassembled into the correct order once they reach the destination)
» packet size (this is to ensure the receiving station can check if all of the packets
have arrived intact).
(Note: the header often also contains another value indicating how many
packets there are in total for this transmission.)

For each packet, the payload consists of the actual data being sent in the packet
(this is usually about 64KiB).
For each packet, the packet trailer consists of:
» some way of identifying the end of the packet; this is essential to allow each
packet to be separated from each other as they travel from sending to
receiving station
» an error checking method; cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs) are used to
check data packets:
– this involves the sending computer adding up all the 1-bits in the payload and
storing this as a hex value in the trailer before it is sent
– once the packet arrives, the receiving computer recalculates the number of
1-bits in the payload
– the computer then checks this value against the one sent in the trailer
– if the two values match, then no transmission errors have occurred;
otherwise the packet needs to be re-sent.
Packet switching is a method of data transmission in which a message is
broken up into a number of packets.
Data transmission
Data transmission can be either over a short distance (for example, computer
to printer) or over longer distances (for example, from one computer to
another in a global network).
Essentially, three factors need to be considered when transmitting data:
» the direction of data transmission (for example, can data transmit in one
direction only, or in both directions)
» the method of transmission (for example, how many bits can be sent at the
same time)
» how will data be synchronised (that is, how to make sure the received data
is in the correct order).
Simplex data transmission
Simplex mode occurs when data can be sent in ONE DIRECTION ONLY (for
example, from sender to receiver). An example of this would be sending data
from a computer to a printer.
Half-duplex data transmission Half-duplex mode occurs when data is sent in
BOTH DIRECTIONS but NOT AT THE SAME TIME (for example, data can be sent
from ‘A’ to ‘B’ and from ‘B’ to ‘A’ along the same transmission line, but they can’t
both be done at the same time). An example of this would be a walkie-talkie
where a message can be sent in one direction only at a time; but messages can
be both received and sent.
Full-duplex data transmission Full-duplex mode occurs when data can be sent in
BOTH DIRECTIONS AT THE SAME TIME (for example, data can be sent from ‘A’ to
‘B’ and from ‘B’ to ‘A’ along the same transmission line simultaneously). An
example of this would be a broadband internet connection.
Serial and parallel data transmission
Universal serial bus (USB)
As the name suggests, the universal serial bus (USB) is a form of serial data
transmission. USB is now the most common type of input/output port found
on computers and has led to a standardisation method for the transfer of data
between devices and a computer.
It is important to note that USB allows both half-duplex and full-duplex data
transmission.
Methods of error detection
The need to check for errors
When data is transmitted, there is always a risk that it may be corrupted, lost or
even gained.
Errors can occur during data transmission due to:
» interference (all types of cable can suffer from electrical interference, which can
cause data to be corrupted or even lost)
» problems during packet switching (this can lead to data loss – or it is even
possible to gain data!)
» skewing of data (this occurs during parallel data transmission and can cause
data corruption if the bits arrive out of synchronisation)
Checking for errors is important since computers are unable to understand text,
for example, if the words are not recognised by its built-in dictionary. Look at the
following example of some corrupted text:
There are a number of ways data can be checked for errors following
transmission:
» parity checks
» checksum
» echo check.

Parity checks
Parity checking is one method used to check whether data has been changed or
corrupted following data transmission. This method is based on the number of 1-
bits in a byte of data. The parity can be either called EVEN (that is, an even
number of 1-bits in the byte) or ODD (that is, an odd number of 1-bits in the
byte). One of the bits in the byte (usually the most significant bit or left-most bit)
is reserved for a parity bit.
Checksum
A checksum is a method used to check if data has been changed or corrupted
following data transmission. Data is sent in blocks, and an additional value, called
the checksum, is sent at the end of the block of data.

Echo check
With echo check, when data is sent to another device, this data is sent back
again to the sender. The sender’s computer compares the two sets of data to
check if any errors occurred during the transmission process.
Symmetric and asymmetric encryption
The purpose of encryption
When data is transmitted over any public network (wired or wireless), there is
always a risk of it being intercepted by, for example, a hacker.
Under these circumstances, a hacker is often referred to as an eavesdropper.
Using encryption helps to minimise this risk.
Encryption alters data into a form that is unreadable by anybody for whom
the data is not intended. It cannot prevent the data being intercepted, but it
stops it from making any sense to the eavesdropper.
This is particularly important if the data is sensitive or confidential (for example,
credit card/bank details, medical history or legal documents).
Plaintext and ciphertext
The original data being sent is known as plaintext. Once it has gone through an
encryption algorithm, it produces ciphertext:

Symmetric encryption
Symmetric encryption uses an encryption key; the same key is used to encrypt and
decrypt the encoded message.

Asymmetric encryption
Asymmetric encryption was developed to overcome the security problems
associated with symmetric encryption. It makes use of two keys called the public
key and the private key