Data Packets

• Data sent over long distances

is usually broken up into data
packets.
• The packets of data are
usually quite small, typically
64 KiB, which are much
easier to control than a long
continuous stream of data
 A typical packet is split up into:

Packet • a packet header

• the payload

Structure • a trailer.
 Packet switching is a method of data
transmission in which a message is broken
up into a number of packets.
Packet Switching

Each packet can then be sent

independently from start point to end
point.

At the destination, the packets will need to

be reassembled into their correct order
(using the information sent in the header).
Benefits of Packet
switching
• there is no need to tie up a
single communication line
• it is possible to overcome
failed, busy or faulty lines by
simply re-routing packets
• it is relatively easy to expand
package usage
 packets can be lost and need to be
re-sent

Drawbacks the method is more prone to

of packet errors
switching
there is a delay at the destination
whilst the packets are being re-
ordered.
Data transmission modes
• Simplex data transmission
• Simplex mode occurs when data can be sent in ONE
DIRECTION ONLY (for example, from sender to receiver).
• Example : Sending data from a computer to a printer.
• Half-duplex data transmission
• Half-duplex mode occurs when data is sent in BOTH
DIRECTIONS but NOT AT THE SAME TIME (along the same
transmission line, but they can’t both be done at the same time).
• Example: walkie-talkie
Data transmission
modes
• Full-duplex data transmission
• Full-duplex mode occurs
when data can be sent in
BOTH DIRECTIONS AT THE
SAME TIME along the same
transmission line
• Example: broadband internet
connection.
Serial and Parallel
data transmission
• Serial data transmission occurs when data is sent
ONE BIT AT A TIME over a SINGLE
WIRE/CHANNEL. Bits are sent one after the other
as a single stream.
• Advantage: Serial data transmission works well
over long distances.
• Disadvantage: Data is transmitted at a slower rate.
• Example: Connecting a computer to a printer via a
USB connection.
Serial and Parallel data
transmission
• Parallel data transmission occurs when SEVERAL BITS OF DATA (usually one
byte) are sent down SEVERAL CHANNELS/WIRES all at the same time. Each

channel/wire transmits one bit at a time.

Advantage: Parallel data transmission works well over short distances.

It is, however, a faster method of data transmission than

serial.
Disadvantage:

The longer the wire, the worse this can become.

Over longer distances data can become skewed.

Use: The internal circuits in a computer use parallel data transmission since the

distance travelled between components is very short and high-speed transmission

is essential.
Comparison of Serial and Parallel data
transmission
Universal serial bus (USB)
• The universal serial bus (USB) is a form of serial data
transmission. USB is now the most common type of input/output
port found on computers and has led to a standardisation
method for the transfer of data between devices and a
computer.
Benefits of USB
Error Checking Methods

• There are a number of ways data can be checked

for errors following transmission:
• parity checks
• checksum
• echo check
Parity bit checking
Parity checking is one method used to check
whether data has been changed or corrupted
following data transmission. This method is
based on the number of1-bits in a byte of data.
The parity can be either called EVEN (that is, an
even number of 1-bits in the byte) or ODD (that
is, an odd number of 1-bits in the byte). One of
the bits in the byte (usually the most significant
bit or left-most bit) is reserved for a parity bit.
Checksum
A checksum is a method used to check if data has been changed or corrupted following
data transmission. Data is sent in blocks, and an additional value, called the checksum, is
sent at the end of the block of data.
The checksum process is as follows:
• When a block of data is about to be transmitted, the checksum is calculated from the
block of data
• the calculation is done using an agreed algorithm (this algorithm has been agreed by
sender and receiver)
• the checksum is then transmitted with the block of data at the receiving end, the
checksum is recalculated by the computer using the block of data (the agreed
algorithm is used to find the checksum)
• the re-calculated checksum is then compared to the checksum sent with the data
block
• if the two checksums are the same, then no transmission errors have occurred;
• otherwise a request is made to re-send the block of data.
Process of echo check

a copy of the data is sent back to the sender

the returned data is compared with the original data by the sender’s computer

if there are no differences, then the data was sent without error

if the two sets of data are different, then an error occurred at some stage
during the data transmission.
Check digit
• A check digit is the final digit included in a code; it is calculated from
all the other digits in the code.
• Check digits are used for barcodes on products, such as
International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN) and Vehicle
Identification Numbers.
They can usually detect the following types of error:
• an incorrect digit entered, for example 5327 entered instead of 5307
• transposition errors where two numbers have changed order, for
example 5037 instead of 5307
• omitted or extra digits, for example 537 instead of 5307 or 53107
instead of 5307
• phonetic errors, for example 13 (thirteen), instead of 30 (thirty).
 Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
This method can best be summarised as follows:

ARQ uses positive and negative acknowledgements (messages sent to the receiver indicating that data has/has not been
received correctly) and timeout (this is the time interval allowed to elapse before an acknowledgement is received)

the receiving device receives an error detection code as part of the data transmission.

this is used to detect whether the received data contains any transmission errors

if no error is detected, a positive acknowledgement is sent back to the sending device

• however, if an error is detected, the receiving device now sends a negative
acknowledgement to the sending device and requests re-transmission of the data
• a time-out is used by the sending device by waiting a pre-determined amount of time ….
• ... and if no acknowledgement of any type has been received by the sending
• device within this time limit, it automatically re-sends the data until a
• positive acknowledgement is received ….
• ... or until a pre-determined number of re-transmissions has taken place
Encryption

The process of converting plain text

into cipher text is known as encryption.
Plaintext and ciphertext
• The original data being sent is known
as plaintext. Once it has gone
through an encryption algorithm, it
produces ciphertext.
Symmetric encryption
• Symmetric encryption uses an encryption key; the same key is used to encrypt and decrypt
the encoded message.

Limitation of symmetric encryption

• The real difficulty is keeping the encryption key a secret (for example, it needs to be sent in
an email or a text message which can be intercepted). Therefore, the issue of security is
always the main drawback of symmetrical encryption
Asymmetric encryption

Asymmetric encryption was developed to

overcome the security problems associated
with symmetric encryption. It makes use of
two keys called the public key and the private
key:
• public key (made available to everybody)
• private key (only known to the computer
user).
• Both types of key are needed to encrypt
and decrypt messages.