Unit I :Electrostatics – I

Co-ordinate Systems and Transformation:

• The physical quantities in Electromagnetic are functions of space and
time.
• To describe the spatial variations of the quantities requires using an
appropriate co-ordinate system.
• A point or vector can be represented in orthogonal or non orthogonal co-
ordinate system
• In orthogonal system the coordinates are mutually perpendicular to each
other.
• In Electromagnetics following three orthogonal coordinate systems are
used
1) Cartesian or Rectangular
2) Cylindrical or polar
3) Spherical
 1) Cartesian Co-ordinate System:
• Also known as rectangular coordinate system.
• Three co-ordinate axis x, y and z are mutually perpendicular to each other.
• The right handed Cartesian coordinate system shown in Fig. 1.1 is generally
using in electromagnetic.

Fig.1.1 : Right handed Cartesian co- Fig. 1.2: Representation of Point in space
ordinate system (counterclockwise)
A point ‘P’ in this co-ordinate system is defined by three co-ordinates (x, y, z )
 Cartesian Co-ordinate System (Continued……)
• A point is also defined by the intersection of three orthogonal surfaces.
• The surfaces are the infinite planes where
x = constant y = constant z = constant

Fig.1.3: Representation of surfaces in space

Fig.1.4: Position of point P in Coordinate system

 Cartesian Co-ordinate System (Continued……)
• When the co-ordinates of a point P are expanded to
• (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ) then the differential volume dv is formed.

Fig. 1.4: Representation of Volume in space

• The differential line element dL is the diagonal through a point P.
dL dx a x  dy a y  dz a z
Where a x , a y , a z are unit vectors in x, y, z directions
 Cartesian Co-ordinate System (Continued……)
• Differential lengths are
dx, dy, dz
• The surface areas are defined by

dsx dy dz ...Differential surface area normal to a x

ds y dx dz ...Differential surface area normal to a y
dsz dx dy ....Differential surface area normal to a z
• The differential volume is given by

dv dx dy dz
 Cartesian Co-ordinate System (Continued……)

Vector Components in Cartesian coordinate system:

suppose a x , a y , a z are unit vectors in x, y, z directions then
A) Dot Pr oduct :
1. a x . a x a y .a y a z . a z 1
2. a x . a y a x . a z a y . a z 0

B ) Cross Pr oduct :
1. a x a y a z
2. a y a z a x
3. a z a x a y
Cartesian Co-ordinate System (Continued……)
Suppose a point P is located at (x1 , y1 , z1 )
Then position vector at point P is given by,
OP x1 a x  y1 a y  z1 a z
any vector in A in cartesian coordinate system is specified as
A A x a x  A y a y  A z a z
Simillarly vector B is specified as,
B B x a x  B y a y  Bz a z
Dot Product of these two vectors is,
A .B A x Bx  A y B y  A z Bz
Cross Product is,
ax ay az
A B  A x Ay Az
Bx By Bz
2) Cylindrical Co-ordinate System:
• In cylindrical coordinate system any point P is obtained at intersection of
three mutually perpendicular surfaces.
• In cylindrical coordinate system two plane surfaces are used and the third
surface the cylindrical surface.

Fig. : Position of point P Cylindrical co-ordinate system

 Cylindrical Co-ordinate System (Continued……)
• The point P is intersection of three mutually perpendicular surfaces. The
surfaces are
1) Circular cylinder with constant radius r as shown in Fig. 1.5
2) A plane with constant angle  as shown in Fig. 1.6. This plane makes full
rotation along Z axis. i.e. angle varies from 0ᵒ to 360ᵒ
3) A plane with constant z as shown in Fig. 1.7.

Fig.1.6: Surface representation

Fig. 1.5: Cylindrical Volume Fig.1.7: Constant Z Plane
Cylindrical Co-ordinate System (Continued……)
• Coordinates of a point P are (r, Φ, z)
• r and z are lengths. If r and z increased by small amount then the differential
lengths dr and dz are obtained.
• By increasing angle Φ, a differential angle dΦ is obtained
• This angle will produce an arc whose length is equal to rdΦ.
• General expression for differential length in
0r 
cylindrical co - ordinate system is given by,
0    360
dl dr a r  r d a   dz a z   z 
If a r , a  , a z are unit vectors
a r Unit vector normal to the cylindrical surface (r constant)
a  Unit vector normal to plane  constant
a z Unit vector normal to plane z constant
 Cylindrical Co-ordinate System (Continued……)
The expression for differenti al areas are,
dsr rd  d z .....(r constant)
ds dr d z .....( constant)
ds z rdr d ..... ( z constant)
Now because of the differenti al changes in these coordinates, a differenti al
Volume dv is formed
dv rdr d dz
Vector A in cylindrical coordinate system is specified as,
A Ar a r  A a  A z a z Cross Pr oduct :
Dot Pr oduct : 1. ar a a z
1. ar . ar a .a a z . a z 1 2. a a z ar
2. ar . a ar . a z a . a z 0 3. a z ar a
Spherical Co-ordinate System:

Fig: Φ = constant
plane
Fig: Spherical surface

Fig: conical surface Fig: Intersection of spherical & conical surface

Defining a point in in spherical coordinate system:
• Consider a spherical surface whose center is at origin.
• Let r be the radius of this spherical surface.
The point P in spherical co-ordinate system is specified at the intersection of
following three surfaces.
1) A spherical surface whose center is at origin.

(The radial distance r from the origin to spherical surface is constant r=Const)
2) A right circular cone whose apex is at origin.
(This surface is symmetrical about z-axis and makes an angle θ about z axis.
θ varies from 0ᵒ to 180ᵒ . This surface is θ =constant surface )
3) A plane containing z- axis and making an angle Φ with that plane.
Spherical Co-ordinate System (Continued)

Fig: Position of point P in spherical co-ordinate system

 Spherical Co-ordinate System (Continued)

• Spherical co-ordinate system is said to be made from three infinite

orthogonal plane.
• Point P in this co-ordinate system is intersection of three surfaces
i.e. r = constant plane
θ=equal to constant plane
Φ= constant plane
This co-ordinate system have three axis i.e. r-axis, θ-axis, Φ-axis
Where r axis  0  r  
 axis  0    
 axis  0    2

Co - ordinates of Point P are r,  ,  

Spherical Co-ordinate System (Continued)
 Position vector in in spherical co - ordinate system
P r ar   a   a
 Differential length in spherical co - ordinate system are,
dr , r d , r sin θ d
 Expression for differential length,
dl dr a r  rd a  r sin θ d a
Here a r , a , a are unit vectors
 Expression for differential surface area,
dsr r 2 sin θ d d .....(r constant)
ds r sin θ dr d .....( constant)
ds r dr d ..... ( constant)
 Expression for differential volume,
dv r 2 sin θ dr d d
Spherical Co-ordinate System (Continued)
 Dot Product of unit Vectors in Spherical Coordinate System :
1. ar . ar a .a a .a 1
2. ar . a ar . a a . a 0

 Cross Product of unit Vectors in Spherical Coordinate System :

1. ar a a
2. a a ar
3. a ar a
Summary in Cartesian Coordinate system
1 Point P is (x, y, z)
2 Unit Vectors (a x , a y , a z )

Dot Pr oduct :
1. a x . a x a y .a y a z . a z 1
2. a x . a y a x . a z a y . a z 0
3 If ax , ay,, az , are unit vectors then
Cross Pr oduct :
Relation between unit vectors
1. a x a y a z
2. a y a z a x
3. a z a x a y
4 Position vector to point P P  x1 a x  y1 a y , z1 a z
Summary in Cartesian Coordinate system (Continued……)
If two point vectors are given as,
1) A .B A x Bx  A y B y  A z Bz
A A x a x  A y a y  A z a z
ax ay az
5 B B x a x  B y a y  Bz a z
2) A B  A x Ay Az
Then,
Bx By Bz

6 Differential lengths are dx, dy, dz

ds x dy dz
7 Differential surface areas are ds y dx dz
ds z dx dy

8 Differential volume is dv dx dy dz

Summary in Cylindrical Coordinate system
1 Point P is r, ,z 
2 Unit Vectors (ar , a , a z )

Dot Pr oduct :
1. ar . ar a .a a z . a z 1
2. ar . a ar . a z a . a z 0
3 If ar , aΦ, az , are unit vectors then
Cross Pr oduct :
Relation between unit vectors
1. ar a a z
2. a a z ar
3. a z ar a
Vector A in spherical coordinate
4
system is
A  Ar ar  A a  A a
Summary in Cylindrical system (Continued……)

5 Differential lengths are dr , rd , dz

dsr rd  dz .....(r constant)

6 Differential surface areas are ds drdz .....( constant)
ds z rdrd  ..... ( z constant)

7 Differential volume is dv rd r d d z

Summary in Spherical Coordinate system
1 Point P is r,  ,  
2 Unit Vectors (a r , a  , a )

Dot Pr oduct :
1. ar . ar a .a a .a 1
2. ar . a ar . a a . a 0
3 If ax , ay,, az , are unit vectors then
Cross Pr oduct :
Relation between unit vectors
1. ar a a
2. a a ar
3. a ar a
5 Position vector to point P P r ar   a   a
Summary in Spherical Co-ordinate system (Continued……)

5 Differential lengths are d r , rd , r sin θd

dS r r 2 sin θd d .....(r constant)

6 Differential surface areas are dS r sin θd r d .....( constant)
dS rd r d ..... ( constant)

7 Differential volume is dv r 2 sin θd r d d

1. Conversion of cylindrical Coordinates to Cartesian:

x r cos 
y r sin 
z z
2. Conversion of Cartesian to cylindrical Coordinates:

2 2
r x y
y1
 tan
x
z z
1. Conversion of Spherical Coordinates to Cartesian:
x r sin θ cos 
y r sin θ sin 
z r cos 
2. Conversion of Cartesian to Spherical Coordinates:

2 2 2
r  x y z
1 z
θ cos
x2  y2  z 2
y
1
 tan
x
Calculation of vector and Unit Vector

AB B  A
Vector
Unit Vector 
Magnitude of Unit vector
AB
a AB 
AB
2 2 2
AB  x  y  z
Example 1:
Locate the points A (2, 3, 5) and B (1, -2, 3) In right handed Cartesian co-ordinate
system and find out :
(i) Vector A (ii) Vector B (iii) Vector from point A to point B.
Soln. :
The two given points are.
A = (2, 3, 5) and B = (1, - 2, 3).
These two points are located in Cartesian co-ordinate system as shown in Fig.
Example 1: i) Vector A is the vector drawn from origin to point A. This is shown in Fig.
(continued..) Now let ax , ay , az be unit vector in X, Y and Z directions. We have general
expression for vector A as, A A x a x  A y a y  A z a z
In this example
A x 2, A y 3, A z 5
 A 2a x  3a y  5a z
(ii) Similarly vector B is the vector drawn from origin
to point B is expressed as,
B B x a x  B y a y  B z a z
B x 1, B y -2, B z 3
 B a x - 2a y  3a z
iii) Now the vector from point A to point B is written as AB
A(2, 3, 5) Here A is first point and B is second point. This vector can
be expressed as,
AB B  A
AB (a x - 2a y  3a z )  (2a x  3a y  5a z )
AB a x  2a x - 2a y  3a y  3a z  5a z
B (1, -2, 3) AB  a x  5a y - 2a z
Example 2:
Find the vector P directed from (3, - 2, - 1) to (1, 0, 1) In Cartesian co-ordinate system
and find the unit vector along P .
Soln. : Consider ax, ay and az are unit vectors in X, Y and Z directions. Then vector P
can be written as
P (1  3) a x  [0  (  2)]a y  [1  (  1)]a z
P  2a x  2a y  2a z
(1, 0, 1)
Now unit vector along P is given as,
P
Unit Vector a p  ........(1)
P

Here P magnitude of vector P

(3,-2,1)
 ( 2 2 )  (2 2 )  (2 2 )
 444
 12
Substitute this value in equation 1
 2a x  2a y  2a z
ap 
12
0.57(  a x  a y  a z )
Vector Fields:
The vector operator  is defined as,
  
  ax  a y  az
x y z
• The operator  can operate on scalar as well as vector.
• When  operates on scalar then it is called as gradient.
• The dot product of vector with is called as divergence and cross product of vector
with  is called as curl operation.
Gradient:
• Consider a scalar function ᶲ which represents the temperature.
• According to the definition of gradient represents  temperature gradient.
• It is rate of change of temperature with distance.
• Temperature is a scalar quantity. It has only magnitude and not the direction.
• But the gradient  is a vector quantity; which is having magnitude as well as
direction.
• In this case the direction is the direction of maximum rate of change of temperature.
Divergence:
• Let V is a differentiable vector point function.
• Then the divergence of a vector point function is denoted by divergence V or . V
and is defined as,

    
Divergence V .V  a x  a y  a z .V
 x y z 

Let V  V1 a x  V2 a y  V3 a z 
    

 Divergence V .V  a x  a y  a z . V1 a x  V2 a y  V3 a z 
 x y z 
 V1 V2 V3 
 Divergence V .V    
 x y z 
( a x . a x a y .a y a z . a z 1, a x . a y a x . a z a y . a z 0)
 Curl:
• Curl is the circulation per unit area, circulation density, or rate of rotation.
• Let F (x. y, z) be a vector point function.
• Vector product of vector function F and operator gives a vector quantity known
as curl of the vector point function.
Let F F1 a x  F2 a y  F3 a z Gradient   Vector
     Divergence F .F Scalar
 Curl F F   a x  a y  a z  F
 x y z  Curl F F Vector
    

  a x  a y  a z   F1 a x  F2 a y  F3 a z 
 x y z 
ax ay az
  

x y z
F1 F2 F3
 F3 F2   F3 F1   F2 F1 
    a x     a y     a x
 y z   x z   x y 
 Charge and Coulomb’s Law:
• A charge is defined as a total deficiency or excess of electrons in any atom.
• Types of charges available are :
1. Positive charge
2. Negative charge
• Charles Augustin De coulomb had performed experiments on the object having static
charge of electricity.
• Coulomb concluded that the force of attraction or repulsion exists between two electric
charges.
Coulombs law:
Experiment Observation: Two like charges always repels each other whereas two unlike
charges always attracts each other.
Statement:
The force which exists between the two point charges is always
( F  Q1 Q 2 )
1. Directly proportional to the product of the charges
1
2. Inversely proportional to the square of distance between them. (F  2
)
R
 Coulomb’s Law (Continued….)
Consider two charges Q1, Q2 separated by distance R and placed in free space.
Q1 Q 2
F
R2
Q Q Fig.: Charged bodies Q1 and Q2
F K 1 2 2 ....(1)
R
Where K constant of proportionality Where,
1
K 1
4 0  10  9 8.854 10  12 F/m
  0 r 36
 r permittivity of vaccum or free space 1 9
K  9  10
 0 Relative permittivity 4 8.854 10  12
For Vaccum  r 1, for air  r 1.0006 1
1 1 1 1
K     ....(2)
4 4 0 r 4 0 .1 4 0
Substitute value of K in eq n (1)
Q Q
F  1 22 .......(For Free space)
4 0 R
 Coulomb's Law in Vector Form:
• The force is a vector quantity. i.e. it has a magnitude as well as the direction.
• Consider two point charges Q1 and Q2 as shown in Fig.
• Consider that these two charges are having the same sign.
• According to Coulomb's law,
• The force is directed along the line joining the two charges.
• So in general the vector form of Coulomb's law can be expressed as,

Q1 Q 2
F2   a12 ....(1)
4 0 R 2

Here a12 unit vector in the direction of line

joining the two charges
R1 Vector from origin to charge Q1
R 2 Vector from origin to charge Q 2
R12 Distance between charge Q1and Q 2
R12 vector from Q1 to Q 2
Coulomb's Law in Vector Form: (Continued…)
 Eq n (1) becomes Q1 Q 2
F2   a12 ....(1)
Q1 Q 2 4 0 R 2
F2   a12 ....(2)
4 0 R12
2

R12
a12 
R12
R12
a12 
R2  R1
 Eq n (2) becomes
Q1 Q 2 R12
F2   ....(3)
4 0 R12 R2  R1
2

simillarly force on Q1 due to Q2 is,

Q1 Q 2 R 21
F1   ....(4)
4 0 R21 R1  R2
2

Comparing equation (3) & (4) we get,

F 2  F 1
 Steps to solve problems on Coulomb's law:
Step 1: Locate the charges in co-ordinate system and calculate the vector joining
charges Q1 and Q2
Step 2: Calculate the value of unit vector. It is along the straight line joining two
charges. The direction of unit vector is towards the charge on which we
have to calculate the force.
Step 3: Use Coulomb's law to calculate the required force
step 4: If there are more than two charges then repeat step 2 and step 3 for each
charge.
Step 5: If there are more than two charges then add all vector forces to calculate
the
total force.
 Step 1: How to locate given charge in co-ordinate system
• Consider a charge Q having coordinates (1, 2, 3)
1. For x=1 draw a line parallel to y axis
2. for y = 2 draw a line parallel to x axis
3. Then obtain a point of intersection

4. At Z equal to 3 draw a line perpendicular to Z axis

5. Draw a perpendicular line from point of intersection up to

the line perpendicular which is to Z axis.

6. This gives coordinates of point Q 123
• Consider charge Q having coordinates (-1, 1, -2)
1. Mark x = -1 y =1 and obtain point of intersection
2. At Z = -2 draw line perpendicular to Z axis
3. Then draw a perpendicular line from point of intersection up to line
perpendicular to Z axis this gives coordinates of charge Q
 Example 1:
• Consider a pair of point charges in free space: Charge Q1= - 350 µC is
located at (- 1, 3, 4) m and the charge Q2 = 20 µC is located at (1, 1, 2) m.
What is the vector force on Q2 ?
Solution:
Given charges are Q1= - 350 µC at (- 1, 3, 4) m
and charge Q2 = 20 µC at (1,1,2) m

Let , R12 vector from Q1 to Q 2

R12 R 2  R1
R1  a x  3a y  4a z
R 2 a x  a y  2a z
 
R12  a x  a y  2a z   a x  3a y  4a z 
R12 2a x  2a y  2a z
Example 1: (Continued…)
R12
a 12 
R12

R12  2 2  ( 2) 2  ( 2) 2

R12  12

2a x  2a y  2a z
a 12 
12
Coulombs law in the vector form is
Q1 Q 2
F2   a12
4 0 R122
F 2 vector force acting on point charge Q 2 due to Q1
 - 350 10 - 6 20 10 - 6 
F2 
1    2a x  2a y  2a z
4 8.854 10 -12   12
2
12

 2a x  2a y  2a z 
F 2 ( 5.24)  
 12 
F 2  3.026a x  3.026a y  3.026a z N
Example 2:
• A 200 µC point charge Q1 is located in rectangular coordinate system at
( 1, 2, 3) m and another point charge Q2 = 100 µC is located at (-2, 1, -3) m.

Find the vector force on Q1 and Q2 ?

Solution:
Given charges are Q1= 200 µC at ( 1, 2, 3) m
and charge Q2 = 100 µC at (-2, 1, -3) m
Let , R12 vector from Q1 to Q 2
R12 R 2  R1
R1 a x  2a y  3a z
R 2  2a x  a y  3a z
 
R12   2a x  a y  3a z  a x  2a y  3a z 
R12  2a x  a x  a y  2a y  3a z  3a z
R12  3a x  a y  6a z
 Example 2: (Continued…)
a 12 
R12  Let the Force on charge Q 2is F 21.
R12 Which is negative of F 12
R12  ( 3) 2  ( 1) 2  ( 6) 2  
F 21   1.72a x  0.576a y  3.458a z N
R12  46 F 21 1.72a x  0.576a y  3.458a z N
 3a x  a y  6a z
a 12 
46
Coulombs law in the vector form is
Q1 Q 2
F 12   a12
4 0 R12
2

F 12 vector force acting on point charge Q 2 due to Q1

  200 10 20 10   3a x  a y  6a z
-6 -6
 1
F 12  -12 

 4 8.854 10     46
2

 46

  3a x  a y  6a z 
F 12 (3.909)  
 46 
F 12  1.72a x  0.576a y  3.458a z N
 Force due to N charges:
 If there are more than two charges then, we can apply the principle of superposition
 To calculate force on exerted on any charge due to remaining all charges .
 Suppose there are three point charges Q1 , Q 2 , and Q 3 .
 Then resultant force exerted on Q1 due to Q 2 and Q 3 will as follows :
FTotal (F 21  F31 )
Where,
F 21 Vector force on charge Q1 due to Q 2 .
F31 Vector force on charge Q1 due to Q 3
i.e.Force on any charge is a vector sum of individual forces due to respective to charges .
If there are ' n' charges then resultant force on charge Q1 due to all charges is,
FTotal (F 21  F31  F 41  F51  .......... .F n1 )
 Example 3:
• Four identical point charges of 8 μC are placed at four corners of square of
4m. Find out the total force acting on charge Q4 .
• Solution:
Step 1:
Each side of a square is 4 m. In cartesian co-ordinate system the charges can be
placed as,

Let , F 14 vector force exerted by Q1 on Q 4 .

F 24 vector force exerted by Q 2 on Q 4 .
F 34 vector force exerted by Q 3 on Q 4 .
1) Using Coulomb' s law , Force on Q 4 due to Q1is,
Q1 Q 4 R14
F 14   a14 .....(1) & a 14 
4 0 R14
2
R14
 Example 3: (Continued…)

R14 R 4  R1
 Coordinates of Q1 are (0,0,0)
& Coordinates of Q 4 are (0,4,0)
2
 R14 4a y R14  (4) 4
R14 4a y
a 14   a y
R14 4

 1  -6 -6 
  8 10 8 10 
F 14  -12  
 ay
 4 8.854 10   42 

F 14 0.036a y N
 Example 3: (Continued…)
2) Force on Q 4 due to Q 2 is,
Q2 Q4 R 24
F 24   a 24 .....(2) & a 24 
4 0 R24
2
R 24
R 24 Distance between Q 2 and Q 4
 Coordinates of Q 2 are (4,0,0)
& Coordinates of Q 4 are (0,4,0)
 R 24  4a x  4a y
R 24  4a x  4a y  4a x  4a y  4a x  4a y
a 24    
R 24 ( 4) 2  ( 4) 2 32 5.66

 1  -6 -6 
  8 10 8 10   4a x  4a y
F 24  -12  

 4 8.854 10   32
2
 

 5.66
F 24 0.0126(a x - a y ) N
Example 3: (Continued…)
3) Force on Q 4 due to Q 3 is,
Q3 Q 4 R 34
F 34   a 34 .....(2) & a 34 
4 0 R34
2
R 34
R 34 Distance between Q 3 and Q 4
 Coordinates of Q 3 are (4,4,0)
& Coordinates of Q 4 are (0,4,0)
 R 34  4a x
R 34  4a x  4a x
a 34     a x
R 34 ( 4) 2 4

 1  -6 -6 
  8 10 8 10 
F 34  -12  
  ax
 4 8.854 10   42 

F 34  0.036a x N
 Example 3: (Continued…)

The resultant force at Q 4 due to Q1 , Q 2 and Q 3 is given by,

F4 F14  F24  F34
F4 0.036a y  0.0126a x - 0.0126a y  0.036a x
F4  0.0234a x  0.0234a y
F4  0.0234(a x  a y ) N
 Electric field intensity(E): Defined as the force per unit charge.
Consider a point charge Q1 whose electric field is shown in fig.
F12
E .......(1)
Q2
Here, F12  Vector force acting on Q 2 by Q1
R distance between Q1 and Q 2
According to Coulomb's law, force experienced by Q 2
Q1Q 2
F12   a12
4 0 R 2

a12 unit vector in the direction of force Fig: Electric field around Q1
F12 Q1
   a12 .....(2)
Q 2 4 0 R 2

from Equation (1) & (2)

Q1
E  a12
4 0 R 2
 Electric field intensity due to discrete charges:
Electric field intensity at point P due to n discrete charges Q1, Q2, ………Qn resp.

E E 1P  E 2 P  E 3 P   E nP
 Example 1: Calculate electric field intensity at Q2 (0,3,4) due to point charge

Q= 0.5 μC placed at origin.

Solution: Given: Q = 0.5 μC at origin (0,0,0) Q
E .a1
Let us consider point charge at (0,3,4) is Q1 4 R 2
0 1
Electric field intensity at (0,3,4) is, R1 (0  0)a x  (3  0)a y  (4  0)a z
R1 3a y  4a z
R
a1  1
R1
3a y  4a z 3a y  4a z
a1  
2
(3)  (4) 2 5
0.5 10  6 3a y  4a z
E  12
.
4 8.854 10 (5) 2
5
E 35.97(3a y  4a z )
E 107.9a y  143.87a z
 Example 2:
Calculate electric field intensity at Q2 (3,4,-2) in free space caused by a charge
Q1= 3 μC at (0, 0, 0) m.
Solution:Given: The two point charges Q1 and Q2 as shown in fig.
Q1
Electric field intensity at Q2 is, E2  .a12
4 0 R12
2

R12 (3  0)a x  (4  0)a y  ( 2  0)a z

R12 3a x  4a y  2a z
R12
a12 
R12
3a x  4a y  2a z 3a x  4a y  2a z
a12  
(3) 2  (4) 2  ( 2) 2 5.38
3 10  6 3a x  4a y  2a z
E2   12
.
4 8.854 10 (5.38) 2
5.38
E 2 173.23(3a x  4a y  2a z )
E 2 519.68a x  629.9a y  246.46a z
 Example 3:
Find E at (0,0,5) m due to Q1 = 0.53 μC at (0,3,0) m and Q2 = -0.45 μC at (5,0,0) m.
Solution:
 R1P (0  0)a x  (0  3)a y  (5  0)a z
Electric field intensity at (0,0,5) due to Q1 and Q2 is,
R1P  3a y  5a z
Let R1P = Vector from Q1 to P
R2P = Vector from Q2 to P
R 2 P (0  5)a x  (0  0)a y  (5  0)a z
R 2 P  5a x  5a z
R1 P
a1 P 
R1 P
 3a y  5a z  3a y  5a z
a1 P  
2
( 3)  (5) 2 5.83
R2P
a2P 
R2P
 5a x  5 a z 5a x  5 a z
a2P  
2
(5)  (5) 2 7.07
 Example 3: (Continued…)
Q1 R1P  3a y  5a z
E1  .a1P
4 0 R1P
2
R2 P  5a x  5a z
0.53 10  6  3a y  5a z
E1  .
4 8.854 10  12 (5.83) 2 5.83
E 1 24.039( 3a y  5a z )
E 1 - 72.11a y  120.19a z
Q2
E2  .a 2 P
4 0 R2 P
2

 0.45 10  6 ( 5a x  5a z )
E2   12
.
4 8.854 10 (7.07) 2
7.07
E 2 - 11.45(  5a x  5a z )
E 2 57.22a x  57.22a z
Applying Principle of superposition E at point P is,
E E 1  E 2
E (-72.11a y  120.19a z )  (57.22a x  57.22a z )
E 57.22a x - 72.11a y  62.97a z V / m
 Electric field intensity due to continuous charges:
Different types of charge distributions are as follows
1. Point charge distribution
2. Line charge distribution
3. Surface charge distribution
4. Volume charge distribution

5. Point charge distribution:

• When different point charges are present at different position then each point
charge produces its own electric field and resultant electric field is vector sum
of individual electric field.
2. Line charge distribution:
• When charge is distributed uniformly along the line is called as line charge.
• Defined as total charge per unit length & denoted by ρl
• Charge density ρl is constant

Total charge
ρl  (C/m)
Length of line

Fig: Line charge distribution

Calculation of Q from ρl :
Total charge (Q) ρ l Length (L)
Let dl Small differential length.
dQ Charge corresponding to d l
dQ ρ l dl
 Q ρ l dl
L
3. Surface charge distribution:
• When charge is uniformly distributed over the surface area is called as surface
charge distribution.
• Defined as total charge per unit surface area & denoted by ρs
Total charge (Q)
ρs  (C/m 2 )
Surface area (s)
Q
ρs  (C/m 2 )
s

Fig: Surface charge distribution

Let, ds Small differential area
d Q Charge corresponding to ds
• Calculation d Qof Q from ρs :
ρs 
ds
d Q ρ s ds
 Q ρ s ds
s
3. Volume charge distribution:
• When charge is uniformly distributed in a certain volume is called as volume
charge distribution.
• Defined as charge per unit volume and denoted by ρv
Total charge (Q)
ρv  (C/m 3 )
Total volume (V)
Q
ρV  (C/m 3 )
V

• Calculation of Q from ρv :
Fig: Volume charge distribution
Let, dv Small differential volume
dQ Charge corresponding to d V
dQ
ρV 
dv
dQ ρ V dv
 Q ρ V dv
V
Electric field intensity due to line charge distribution:

• Consider a line charge having density ρ l

Let, ρ l line charge density
dl differential length on line charge
dQ Charge on dl
dQ
ρl 
dl
dQ ρ l dl (1)
Q
E a R
4 0 R 2

dQ
dE  a R (2)
4 0 R 2

ρ dl
d E  l 2 a R Using Eq n (1) & (2)
4 0 R
ρ l dl
E  a R Electric field due to finite line charge
l
4 0 R 2
 Electric field intensity of an infinite line charge:
• Consider a infinite line charge along Z- axis from +∞ to -
∞Let , dQ small point charge on  ve Z axis
dQ produces electric field d E at point P
dQ
dE  a R (1)
4 0 R 2

R (r  0)a r  (   )a  (0  z )a z

R r a r  z a z
R  r2  z2
R rar  za z
aR   (2)
2 2
R r z
Using eq n (1) & (2)
dQ rar  za z
dE  
4 0 r 2
z 2

2
r2  z2
dQ rar  za z
dE   (3)
4 0 (r  z )
2 2 1
(r 2  z 2 ) 2
Electric field intensity of an infinite line charge: (Continued…)
dQ
dE  3
(r a r  z a z ) (4)
4 0 (r 2  z )
2 2

• The line charge is uniformly distributed along Z- axis

i.e. If charge dQ is present on +ve Z- axis the same charge
is present on -ve Z- axis.
 z components in eq n (4) gets cancelled.
dQ  dQ ρ l dl
dE  3
r a r (5)
4 0 (r 2  z 2 ) 2 dQ ρ l dz (7)
 Total electric field intensity at point P is, From eq n (6) & (7)

 ρ l dz
dQ E  ra r (8)
E  3
r a r (6) 3

4 0 (r 2  z 2 ) 2

4 0 (r 2  z 2 ) 2
Electric field intensity of an infinite line charge: (Continued…)

ρ l dz
E  3
ra r (8)

4 0 (r 2  z 2 ) 2
Substitute z rtan (9)
dz rsec 2 d
When z  -, -  rtan From eq n (9)

  tan -1 ( ) 
2
z  ,  rtan

 tan -1 () 
2

2
ρ l r a r r sec 2
E
4 0  3
d

2
(r 2  r 2 tan 2  ) 2


2
ρ r a r 2
sec 2
E l  d
4 0
r 
3

2
2
(1  tan 2  ) 2
Electric field intensity of an infinite line charge: (Continued…)


ρ l a r
sin 2
2
2
ρ l r a r sec 2
E
E
4 0  3
d
4 0 r 2

2
r 3 (sec 2  ) 2

 ρ l a r       
2 E  sin   - sin    
ρ l a r sec 2 4 0 r   2   2 
E
4 0 r  sec3  d
 ρ l a r
2
E 1 - (-1)
4 0 r

2
ρ l a r 1
E
4 0 r  sec d ρ l a r
 E 2
2

4 0 r
2
ρ l a r ρ l a r
E
4 0 r cos d E

 2 0 r
2
 Electric field intensity of line charge over circular Ring:
• Consider circular ring located on X-Y plane, whose centre is at origin.
Let , r radius of the ring
ρ l line charge uniformly distributed over ring
P Point on z - axis at a distance z above
centre of circular ring
Q Total charge on ring
dl differential length on ring
dQ charge corresponding to dl
d E Electric field at point P due to dQ
dQ
dE  a R (1)
4 0 R 2
Fig.: Circular ring
 dQ ρ l dl
ρ l dl
dE  a R
4 0 R 2

dl rd (in direction of a  z 0, r constant)

Electric field intensity of line charge over circular Ring: (continued….)
R (0  r )a r  (   )a  ( z  0)a z
R  r a r  z a z
R  ( r ) 2  z 2  r 2  z 2
R  rar  za z
aR   (2)
2 2
R r z
Using eq n (1) & (2)
ρ l r d  rar  za z
dE  
4 0 r 2
z 2
 2
r2  z2
ρ l r d  rar  za z
dE  
4 0 (r  z )
2 2 1
2
r z 2 2
 
ρ l r d
dE  3
( r a r  z a z ) (3) Fig.: Line charge over Circular ring
4 0 (r 2  z 2 ) 2
 Electric field intensity of line charge over circular Ring: (continued….)
In eq n (4) we get two components in Z direction & in radial direction.
1)  Point P is above the ring at distance  z ,  z component will be positive.
2)  ve radial components are equal to - ve radial components
ρ r d
 radial component will cancel each other. dE  ( r a  z a ) (4)
l
3 r z

4 (r  z ) 2 2 2

ρ l r d
0

dE  3
z a z (4)
4 0 (r 2  z 2 ) 2 ρl r z
 Total electric field intensity at point P is, E 3
2 a z
2 4 0 (r 2  z 2 ) 2
ρ l r d
E 3
z a z (5) ρl r z
 0
4 0 (r 2  z 2 ) 2 E  3
a z (6)
2 2 0 (r 2  z 2 ) 2
ρl r z a z
3 
E d
4 0 (r 2  z 2 ) 2  0
ρl r z a z
 0
2
E 3
4 0 (r 2  z ) 2 2
 Electric field intensity due to surface charge distribution:
Let , s Infinite surface area (sheet) in the x - y plane.
Q Total charge distribute d over infinite surface s.
ρ s Surface charge density.
E Electric field intensity at point P due to infinite sheet charge.
P Point on z - axis at a distance z above infinite surface s
P (0,  , z) coordinates of P
ds small differenti al area
dQ small charge corresponding to ds
(r,  ,0) coordinates of dQ
d E Electric field at point P due to dQ
dQ
dE  a R
4 0 R 2

 dQ ρ s ds
ρ s ds
dE  a R (1)
4 0 R 2
 Electric field intensity due to surface charge distribution: (Continued…)
R (0  r )a r  (   )a  ( z  0)a z  ρ s ds 
 dE  a R (1)
R  r a r  z a z  4 0 R 2 

R  ( r ) 2  z 2  r 2  z 2
R  rar  za z
aR   (2)
2 2
R r z
Using eq n (1) & (2)
ρ s ds  rar  za z
dE  
4 0 r 2
z 2
 2
r2  z2
ρ s ds  rar  za z
dE  
4 0 (r  z )
2 2 1
r 2  z 2 2
ρ s ds
dE  3
( r a r  z a z ) (3)
4 0 (r 2  z 2 ) 2
a r represents horizantal components &
a z represents vertical components
 Electric field intensity due to surface charge distribution: (Continued…)
 
 dE  ρ s ds
( r a r  z a z ) (3)
 sheet is placed in x - y plane i.e in horizantal plane.  
3

 4 0 (r  z )
2 2 2


Every horizantal component is having equal component at opposite side.

Substitute r 2  z 2 t (5)
 a r components will be cancelled.
 2r dr dt
 z is constant  ds r dr d dt
r dr 
ρ s ds 2
 dE  3
z a z (4)
When r  0, t  z 2 From eq n (5)
4 0 (r 2  z 2 ) 2 When r  , t  
 Total electric field intensity at point P is, ρs z

1 dt
a z  
2
2 
E
4 0
0  3

2
ρ s r dr d z 2
(t ) 2
E   3
z a z
ρs z 1 
3 
0 r 0
4 0 (r  z )2 2 2
E a z 2  (t ) 2 dt
4 0 2 z2
2 
ρs r dr 
E
4 0
z a z  d  3
ρs z
  3 1 
 t 2 

0 r 0
(r 2  z ) 2 2 E a z  
4 0 3
   1
 2  z2

 1 
ρs z  t 2 
E a z  (6)
4 0 1 
  
 2  z2
 Electric field intensity due to surface charge distribution: (Continued…)

ρs z 1  1 


E a z ( 2)  1  ρs z  t 2 
4 0  2 E
4 0
a z 
1 
(6)
 t  z2   
 2  z2
 
ρs z 1 1
E  a z   
2 0  2 2 
1

 z  

ρ z  1
E  s a z   
2 0  z
ρs
E a z (7)
2 0
eq n (7) represents electric field intensity above x - axis
If the the point P is below x - y plane the,
ρs
E  a z
2 0
 Summary of Electric field intensity for:

1) Infinite line charge:

ρl
E a r
2 0 r

2) line charge over circular Ring:

ρl r z
E 3
az
2 0 (r 2  z ) 2 2

3) Infinite Surface charge distribution:

ρs
E  a z
2 0
 Steps to solve examples on Line charge distribution:
Step 1 : Locate given point ‘P’ and a line in co-ordinate system.
Step 2 : Draw perpendicular from point P to the given line. Then find the point of
intersection (P’)
Step 3 : Draw the vector from point of intersection to the given point P. This is vector R.
Also find the value of unit vector ar
ρl
Step 4: Calculate E using formula. E ar
2π 0 r
 Examples on Line charge distribution:

1. On the line described by x=4 m, y=-2 m there is a charge distribution of density ρl = 10 nC/m.

Calculate electric field intensity at point (4,2,-1) m.

Solution:
1) Given line is described by x= 4m, y= -2 m and we have to calculate E at (4,2,-1).
2) Line is described by x = 4m and y= -2 m
 x and y are fixed and z varies.
 Line is parallel to Z axis
ρl
 E a r (1)
2π 0 r
r 4  4 a x  2  ( 2) a y   1  ( 1) a z
r 4 a y
r  4 2 4
r 4 ay 10 10-9 4 ay
ar   E  
2π 8.854 10-12 4 4
r 4
E 44.93 a y V/m
 Examples on surface charge distribution:
Example 1:

1. A uniform sheet of charge with ρs = 15 nC/m2 is placed in the x-y plane. Calculate electric

field intensity at a point P on the Z- axis when,

ii) z  4 m
i) ‘P’ is located 4 m above the xy-plane
ii) ‘P’ is located -4 m below the x-y plane.  E
ρs
2 0
 
 a z (1)
Comment on result.
15 10 -9
Solution: E -12
( a z )
2 8.854 10
i) Given, ρ s 15 nC/m 2
E  847.074a z
z 4 m
ρs Comments:
 E a z (1)
2 0 1) The magnitude of electric field intensity
is independent of the distance from the
15 10 -9 plane.
E -12
az 2) Electric field is normal to the plane of
2 8.854 10
charge.
E 847.074a z
 Example 2:
Two infinite uniform sheets of charge of 20 μC/m2 are located at x=± 1m.
Determine electric field intensity in all region.
Solution:
Electric field intensity due to both
infinite sheet charge is directed along x axis
ρs
E  a n  (1)
2 0
Where, a n Unit vector ar to ρ s
Total electric field intensity due to sheet 1 and 2 is
E T E1  E 2
 Different region to consider point P are as follows,
1) ‘P’ is at L.H.S. of ρs1 at X=-1.
2) ‘P’ is in between of ρs1 and ρs2 i.e. -1 < x < +1
3) ‘P’ is at R.H.S. of ρs2 at x = +1.
4) In every region both sheet charge densities produce E.
Example 2: (Continued…)

ii) For - 1  x  1
i) For x   1
ρs
E1  ax
E1 
ρs
2 0
 
 ax 2 0
20 10-6
E1  a x
E1 
20 10-6
2 8.854 10 -12
 
 a x 2 8.854 10 -12

E1 1.13 106 a x V/m 2

E1  1.13 106 a x V/m 2
ρ
 
E2  s  a x
ρ
E2  s  a x
2 0
 
2 0

E2 
20 10-6
 
ax
E2 
20 10-6
2 8.854 10 -12
 
ax
-12
2 8.854 10
E 2  1.13 106 a x V/m 2
E 2  1.13 106 a x V/m 2
E T E1  E 2
E T E1  E 2
 6
 6
E T   1.13 10 a x   1.13 10 a x   
E T  1.13 106 a x   1.13 106 a x 
E T 0
E T  2.26 106 a x V/m 2
Example 2: (Continued…)
i) For x  1
ρs
E1  ax
2 0
20 10-6
E1  -12
ax
2 8.854 10
E1 1.13 106 a x V/m 2
ρs
E2  ax
2 0
20 10-6
E2  -12
ax
2 8.854 10
E 2 1.13 106 a x V/m 2
E T E1  E 2
 
E T  1.13 106 a x  1.13 106 a x 
E T 2.26 106 a x V/m 2
 Gauss law and electric potential:
 Electric flux:
• If a test charge is placed near any point charge then it experiences
force.
• The direction of this force is a radial and it is radiated outward
from the positive charge, then these lines of force are called as
flux lines.
• The electric field around the charge is in the form of small
bunches which contains a fixed number of electric lines of force.
• Such a bunch of electric lines of force is called as a tube of flux
• The total number of bunches is called as a electric flux.
• Electric flux is denoted by ψ.
 Properties of flux lines:
1. Flux lines always start from positive charge (+Q) and ends on (-
Q)
2. If only positive charge is present and negative charge does not
exist then lines terminate at infinity.
3. The flux lines never cross each other. The flux lines are
independent of medium in which charges are placed.
 Properties of flux lines : (Continued…)
4. Total number of flux lines is called as electric flux denoted by ψ
5. Electric flux is equal to charge. (ψ =Q)
 Electric flux Density :
• As shown in figure, inner sphere consist of charge Q.
• This charge produces electric flux ψ on the surface of inner sphere.
• The radius of inner sphere is a (m) and surface area is 4π a2 (m2).
• Electric flux is uniformly distributed over the surface area of inner sphere.
• The density of this electric flux is called as electric flux density.
• It is a vector field and denoted by the ψ.

Electric flux
Electric flux density 
surface area
ψ Q
Electric flux density  
4 a2 4 a2

• The unit of electric flux density is coulomb/m2

• It is also called as displacement flux density or displacement density
Relationship between D & E:
Electric flux density (D) is,
Q
D a r (1)
4 r 2

Q
E a r (2)
4  r 2

Q
εE a r (3)
4 r 2

Comparing eq n (1) & (3)

D  E
Where,   0 r
D  0 r E
For free space,  r 1
 D  0 E
Equations for D for standard charge configurations:

Charge configuration E D
ρl ρl
Infinite line charge E ar D ar
2 0 r 2 r
ρs ρs
Infinite surface charge E  an D  an
2 0 2
ρv ρv
Volume Charge E  dv D  dv
v
4 0 r 2
v
4 r 2
 Example :
 Gauss law:
Statement: Electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface.
Let ψ = electric flux passing through any closed surface.
Q = charge enclosed by surface.
ψ=Q
 Mathematical representation of Gauss law:

Fig: closed surface containing total charge Q coulomb

• Normal component of the D is its projection on ds i.e. D cosθ

 Mathematical representation of Gauss law:
• Let us consider a closed surface of any shape as shown in figure

let Q total charge in the closed surface

ds differential element at point P
a n direction of ds (normal to ds)
 angle between D and ds (ds i.e. a n )
d flux crossing ds
d (normal component of D) ds
Fig: closed surface containing total charge Q coulomb
d D cos ds
 D ds D ds cos
 d D ds
Total flux crossing through the closed surface is,
 D ds
 D ds Q
Gauss law for different charge configurations:

1. For several point charges  Q  Q n

2. Line charge  Q ρ l d l
L
3. Surface charge  Q ρ s d s
S
4. Volume Charge  Q ρ v d v
V
 Special Gaussian surface:
• The surface over which Gauss’s law is applied must be closed.

• Such close surface are special Gaussian surfaces.

• The defining conditions for special Gaussian surfaces are

1. The surface is closed one.

2. At each point of the surface, D is either normal or tangential to the surface.
3. D is constant over the part of the surface where D is normal.

Application of Gauss’s law:

1. Gauss law is used to determine the charge enclosed or the flux passing through the closed
surface.
 Applications Gauss’s Law:
• Different applications of Gauss’s law are as follows,
A. The case of Point charge:
Consider a point charge Q, is placed at the origin of spherical co-ordinate system.
Let ds=differential element.
The total flux passing through the sphere is given by
 Q D ds (1)
s

Here, D Electric flux density

Q
D 2
a r (2)
4π r
 differential element in spherical
coordinate system is,
ds r 2 sin  d d a r (3)
substitute eq n (2) & (3) in eq n (1)
 Q
 Q 
4π r 2
a r
 2

  r sin  d d a r 
s 
The Case of Point Charge: (Continued……)

 Q 
 Q
4π r 2
a 
 2
r   r sin  d d a r  Q
  2 2
s  4π
 2
   
 Q
2
a
 2

r   r sin  d d a r   Q
 0  0  4π r 
2 

Q

4π  0
d 
1 2
2

r sin  d a r a r 
 0 r
2 
Q
 
4π  0
d


0
sin  d

Q 2
   0  cos  0


4π
Q
  2  0 cos   cos 0
4π
Q
  2   1  1
4π
Infinite Line charge:
Consider a infinite line along Z-axis extending from - ∞ to + ∞.
Let the Gaussian surface be a cylindrical surface.
Let, L = Length of cylindrical surface
r = radius of cylindrical surface
ρl = Line charge uniformly distributed along z- axis
so, Flux density is a function is function of ‘r’ only.
This flux density is radially outward from cylindrical surfac
Thus, D D a r
According to gauss law,
 Q  D ds
cylindrical surface
(1)

From fig. we have to take closed surface integration for following surfaces
i) Side surface
ii) Top surface
iii) Bottom surface
 Infinite Line charge: (Continued….)  Q  D ds
cylindrical surface
(1)

Thus equation (1) can be written as,

Q D r L 2 (4)
Q  D ds  D ds  D ds (2)
Q
side top bottom  ρl 
L
As the flux is directed radially outward from the
 Q ρ l L (5)
cylindrical surface.
Comparing eq n (4) & (5)
Surface integration for top & bottom surface is zero.
ρ l L D r L 2
 Q  D ds (3) ρ l D 2r
side
ρl
ds r d dz a r D 
2 r
 
Q  D a r  r d dz a r  D
ρl
a r (6)
side
2r
L 2
Q   D r d dz  a r a r    D  0 E E 
D
z 0  0 0
2
L
ρl
E  a r (7)
Q D r dzd
z 0 0
2  0 r
Eq n (6) electric flux density
Q D r  z   
L 2
0 0
Eq n (7) electric field intensity
Q D r L  02  0
Equation of continuity of current
Integral form
Point form
Electrostatic Discharge
Different Stages of ESD
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope